Skip to main content
Log in

High Stakes: Time Poverty, Testing, and the Children of the Working Poor

  • Published:
Qualitative Sociology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Sociological interest in the implementation of policy generally focuses on the ways a single stream of policy creates a set of measurable consequences either for parents or children. This article takes an ethnographic approach to the study of conflicting policy mandates that collide in the lives of families moving from welfare to work at the same time that schools are implementing high stakes tests and the end of social promotion. We show that these two policies make contradictory demands on parents, to the potential detriment of children. Ethnographic research reveals the ways in which multiple and incompatible forms of policy impact poor families, putting them in the unhappy position of choosing between economic stability or mobility and children's educational performance.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Alexander, K. L, Entwisle, D. R., & Dauber, S. L. (1994). On the success of failure. New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Federation of Teachers. (1997). Passing on failure: District promotion policies and practices. Washington, DC: American Federation of Teachers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Annie E. Casey Foundation. (1998). Childcare you can count on: Model programs and policies. Baltimore: Annie E. Casey Foundation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baydar, N., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1991). Effects of maternal employment and child care arrangements in infancy on preschoolers' cognitive and behavioral outcomes: Evidence from the children of the NLSY. Developmental Psychology, 27, 918-931.

    Google Scholar 

  • Belsky, J., & Eggebeen, D. (1991). Early and extensive maternal employment child care and 4–6 yearolds' socioemotional development: Children of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 53, 1083-1099.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blau, F., & Grossberg, A. (1992). Maternal labor supply and children's cognitive development. Review of Economic and Statistics, 74, 474-481.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bond, J. T., Galinsky, E., & Swanberg, J. (1998). The 1997 National Study of the Changing Workforce. New York: Families and Work Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boo, K. (2001). After welfare. New Yorker, April 9, 93-107.

  • Bos, H., Huston, A., Granger, R., Duncan, G., Brock, T., & McLloyd, V. (1999). New hope for people with low incomes: Two-year results of a program to reduce poverty and reform welfare. New York: Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation, April.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brodkin, E. (1997). Inside the welfare contract: Discretion and accountability in state welfare administration. Social Service Review, 71, 1-33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brooks, J., Hair, E., & Zaslow, M. (2001). Welfare reform's impact on adolescents: Early warning signs. Child Trends Research Briefs, 2001-2005. Washington, DC.

  • Brooks-Gunn, J., Han, W. J., & Waldfogel, J. (2002). Maternal employment and child cognitive outcomes in the first three years of life: The NICHD Study of Early Child Care. Child Development, 73, 1052-1072.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dawson, D. (1991). Family structure and children's health and well-being: Data from the 1988 National Health Interview Survey on Child Health. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 53, 573-584.

    Google Scholar 

  • Entwisle, D. R., & Alexander, K. L. (1995). A parent's economic shadow: Family structure versus family resources as influences on early school achievement. Journal of Marriage and Family, 57, 399-409.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fiscal Policy Institute. (2001). The state of working New York 2001: Working harder, growing apart. New York City: Fiscal Policy Institute. www.fiscalpolicy.org/sowny/links.stm.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gennetian, L, Duncan, G., Knox, V., Vargas, W., Clark-Kaufmann, E., London, A. (2002). How welfare and work policies for parents affect adolescents: A synthesis of research. New York: Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation, May.

    Google Scholar 

  • Halpern, R. (1999). After-school programs for low-income children: Promises and challenges. In The future of children: When school is out (pp. 81-95). Los Altos, CA: David and Lucile Packard Foundation, 9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Han, W., Waldfogel, J., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2001). The effects of early maternal employment on late cognitive and behavioral outcomes. The Journal of Marriage of Family, 63, 336-354.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hancock, L. (2001). Hands to work. New York: William Morris.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hauser, R. (1999). Shall we end social promotion? Truth or consequences. Center for Demography and Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, CDE Working Paper No. 99–06.

  • Heubert, J., & Hauser, R. (1999). High stakes: Testing for tracking, promotion, and graduation. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heymann, J. (2000). The widening gap: Why America's working families are in jeopardy and what can be done about it. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman, L., Youngblade, L., Coley, R., Fuligni, A., & Kovacs, D. (1999). Mothers at work: Effects on children's well-being. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holmes, C. T. (1989). Grade level retention effects: A meta-analysis of research studies. In L. A. Shepard & M. L. Smith (Eds.), Flunking grades: Research and policies on retention (pp. 16-33). London: Falmer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huston, A. (2002). Reforms and child development. In The future of children, vol. 12, no. 1 (pp. 59-78). Los Altos, CA: Center for the Future of Children, David and Lucile Packard Foundation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jencks, C., & Phillips, M. (1998). The black-white test score gap. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kao, G. (1999). Psychological well-being and educational achievement among immigrant youth. In D. J. Hernandez (Ed.), Children of immigrants: Health, adjustment, and public assistance (pp. 410-477). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaufman, P., & Bradby, D. (1992). Characteristics of at-risk students in NELS:88. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, NCES.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kozol, J. (1991). Savage inequalities: Children in America's schools. New York: Crown.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lipsky, M. (1980). Street-level bureaucracy: The dilemmas of individuals in public services. Cambridge: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCoy, A. R., & Reynolds, A. J. (1998). Grade retention and school performance: An extended investigation. Discussion Paper 1167–98. University of Wisconsin-Madison: Institute for Research on Poverty, August.

    Google Scholar 

  • McLanahan, S. S., & Sandefur, G. (1994). Growing up with a single parent: What hurts, what helps? Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meyers, M., Glaser, B., & MacDonald, K. (1998). On the front lines of welfare delivery: Are workers implementing policy reforms?? Journal of the Association for Public Policy Analysis and Management, 17, 1-22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morris, P., Huston, A., Duncan, G., Crosby, D., & Bos, J. (2001). How welfare and work policies affect children: A synthesis of research. An MDRC report. New York: Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morris, P., Knox, V., & Gennetian, L. (2002). Welfare policies matter for children and youth: Lessons for TANF reauthorization. MDRC policy brief. New York: Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation, March.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morris, P., & Michalopoulos, G. (2000). The self-sufficiency project at 36 months: Effects on children of a program that increase partial employment and income. Canada: SDRC, June.

    Google Scholar 

  • Newman, K. S. (1999). No shame in my game. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. and the Russell Sage Foundation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Orfield, G., & Kornhaber, M. L. (2001). Raising standards or raising barriers? Inequality and high-stakes testing in public education. New York: The Century Foundation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pallas, A., Natriello, G., & McDill, E. (1989). The changing nature of the disadvantaged population: Current dimensions and future trends. Educational Researcher, 18, 6-22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rumberger, R. W., & Larson, K. A. (1998). Toward explaining differences in educational achievement among Mexican American language-minority students. Sociology of Education, 71, 69-93.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shepard, L., & Smith, M. (1996). Failed evidence on grade retention. Psychology in the Schools, 33, 251-261

    Google Scholar 

  • Steinberg, J. (1998a). Chancellor vows to fail students lacking in skills. New York Times, April 21, Al.

  • Steinberg, J. (1998b). Crew's plan to hold back failing students had familiar ring. New York Times, April 26, 29.

  • Waldfogel, J., Han, W., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2002). The effects of early maternal employment on child development. Demography, 39, 369-392.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zaslow, M., McGroder, S., Cave, & Marnier, C. (1999). Maternal employment and measures of children's health and development among families with some history of welfare receipt. Research in the Sociology of Work, 7, 233-259.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zaslow, M., Moore, K., Brooks, J., Morris, P., Tout, K., Redd, Z., & Emig, C. (2002). Experimental studies of welfare reform and children. In The future of children, vol. 12, no. 1 (pp. 79-96). Los Altos, CA: David and Lucile Packard Foundation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zill, N. (1996a). Family change and student achievement: What we have learned, what it means for schools. In A. Booth & J. P. Dunn (Eds.), Family-school links: How do they affect educational outcomes? (pp. 139-174). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zill, N. (1996b). Parental schooling and children's health. Public Health Reports, 11, 34-43.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zill, N., Collins, N., West, J., & Germino-Hausken, E. (1995). Approaching kindergarten: A look at preschoolers in the United States. NCES 95-280. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zill, N., & West, J. (2000). Entering kindergarten: A portrait of American children when they begin school. In The condition of education 2000 (pp. xvi-xlvii). NCES 2000–06. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 2000.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Newman, K.S., Chin, M.M. High Stakes: Time Poverty, Testing, and the Children of the Working Poor. Qualitative Sociology 26, 3–34 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021487219440

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021487219440

Navigation