Skip to main content
Log in

Agricultural activities and the global carbon cycle

  • Published:
Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The observed and projected increase in emission of greenhouse gases, with attendant effects on global warming and sea level rise, have raised interests in identifying mitigation options. Terrestrial C sequestration involves capture of atmospheric C through photosynthesis and storage in biota, soil and wetlands. Land use, vegetation and soil management have a strong impact on the biotic processes of C sequestration. Losses of C from the terrestrial ecosystems are exacerbated by deforestation, biomass burning, plowing, resource-based and subsistence agriculture, and practices that mine soil fertility and deplete the soil organic C (SOC) pool. Biomass burning may also produce charcoal, which is an inert carbon with long residence time. Practices that enhance C sequestration include afforestation and reforestation, conservation tillage and mulch farming, integrated nutrient management and adopting systems with high biodiversity. Net C sequestration within an ecosystem can be assessed by taking into account the hidden C costs of fertilizers, pesticides, tillage, irrigation and other input. Restoration of degraded soils and ecosystems has a vast potential of C sequestration. The Kyoto Protocol provides for C sequestration in terrestrial sinks and C trading through Clean Development Mechanisms. Terrestrial C sequestration, besides being a win–win strategy, offers a window of opportunity for the first few decades of the 21st century. It is a natural process of reducing the rates of gaseous emissions while alternatives to fossil fuel take effect.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Allison F.E. 1973. Soil Organic Matter and Its Role in Crop Production. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co., New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arnalds O., Porarinsdottir E.F., Metusalemsson S., Jonsson A. and Arnason E.G.O.A. 2001. Soil Erosion in Iceland. Soil Conservation Service, Agricultural Research Institute, Reykjavik, Iceland, 121 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arnalds O., Aradottir A.L. and Gudbergsson G. 2002. Organic carbon sequestration by restoration of severely degraded areas in Iceland. In: Kimble J.M., Lal R. and Follett R.F. (eds), Agricultural Practices and Policies for Carbon Sequestration in Soil. Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 267–280.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aune J.B. and Lal R. 1995. The tropical soil productivity calculator–A model for assessing effects of soil management on productivity. In: Lal R. and Stewart B.A. (eds), Soil Management: Experimental Basis for Sustainability and Environment Quality. Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 499–520.

    Google Scholar 

  • Avnimelech Y. and McHenry J.R. 1984. Enrichment of transported sediments with organic carbon, nutrients and clay. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 48: 259–266.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Baede A.P.M. 2001. The climate system: An overview. In: Intergovernment Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 85–198.

    Google Scholar 

  • Batjes N.H. 1996. Total C and N in the soils of the world. Eur. J. Soil Sci. 47: 151–163.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Battelle 2000. Global Energy Technology Strategy: Addressing Climate Change. Battelle, Washington, DC, 60 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chisholm M.S.W. and Morel F.M.M. 1991. What controls phytoplankton production in nutrient-rich areas of the open sea. American Society Lymnology and Oceanography Symposium 22–24 February 1991, San Marcos, CA, Lymn. Ocean. 36: 41507–41511.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chisholm M.S.W., Falkowski P.G. and Cullen J.J. 2001. Discrediting ocean fertilization. Science 294: 309–310.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cihacek L.J., Sweeney M.D. and Deibert E.J. 1992. Characterization of wind erosion sediments in the Red River Valley of North Dakota. J. Environ. Qual. 22: 305–310.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davidson E.A. and Ackerman I.L. 1993. Changes in soil carbon inventories following cultivation of previously untilled soils. Biogeochemistry 20: 161–193.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Doran J.W. and Parkin T.B. 1996. Quantitative indications of soil quality. In: Methods for Assessing Soil Quality. Soil Science Society of America Special Publication #49. SSSA, Madison, WI, pp. 25–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Doran J.W. and Jones A.J. 1996. Methods for Assessing Soil Quality. Soil Science Society of America Special Publication #49. SSSA, Madison, WI.

    Google Scholar 

  • Doran J.W., Jones A.J., Arshad M.A. and Gilley J.E. 1998. Determinants of soil quality and health. In: Lal R. (ed.), Soil Quality and Soil Erosion. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 17–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dregne H.E.(ed.) 1992. Degradation and Restoration of Arid Lands. Texas Technical University, Lubbock, TX.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elliott E.T. 1986. Aggregate structure, and carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus in native and cultivated soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 50: 627–633.

    Google Scholar 

  • Emerson W.W. 1995. Water retention, organic carbon and soil texture. Austr. J. Soil Res. 33: 241–251.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eswaran H., Van den Berg E., Reich P. and Kimble J.M. 1995. Global soil C resources. In: Lal R., Kimble J., Levine E. and Stewart B.A. (eds), Soils and Global Change. Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 27–43.

    Google Scholar 

  • Etheridge D.M., Steele L.P., Francey R.J. and Langenfelds R.L. 1998. Atmospheric methane between 1000 AD and present: Evidence of anthropogenic emissions and climatic variability. J. Geophys. Res. 103: 15979–15993.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gleason R.A. and Euliss N.H. Jr. 1998. Sedimentation on prairie wetlands. Great Plains Res. 8: 97–112.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gregorich E.G. 1996. Soil quality: A Canadian Perspective. In: Cameron K.C., Cornforth I.S., McLaren R.G., Beare M.H., Basher L.R., Metherell A.K. and Kerr L.E. (eds), Soil Quality Indicators for Sustainable Agriculture in New Zealand. Proceedings of Workshop. Lincoln University, Christchurch, New Zealand, pp. 40–52.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gregorich E.G., Carter M.R., Doran J.W., Pankhurst C.E. and Dwyer L.M. 1997. Biological attributes of soil quality. In: Gregorich E.G. and Carter M.R. (eds), Soil Quality for Crop Production and Ecosystem Health. Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, pp. 81–113.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gregorich E.G., Greer K.J., Anderson D.W. and Liang B.C. 1998. Carbon distribution and losses: erosion and deposition effects. Soil Tillage Res. 47: 291–302.

    Google Scholar 

  • Halmann M.M. and Steinbert M. 1999. Greenhouse Gas Carbon Dioxide Mitigation: Science and Technology. Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL, 568 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hamblin A.P. and Davies D.B. 1977. Influence of organic matter on the physical properties of some east Anglian soils of high silt content. J. Soil Sci. 28: 11–22.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Haynes R.J. and Beare M.H. 1996. Aggregation and organic matter storage in meso-thermal humid soils. In: Carter M.R. and Stewart B.A. (eds), Structure and Organic Matter in Agricultural Soils. CRC/Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 213–261.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haynes R.J. and Naidu R. 1998. Influence of lime, fertilizer and manure applications on soil organic matter content and soil physical conditions: a review. Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosyst. 51: 139–153.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hendrix P.F., Mueller B.R., Bruce R.R., Langdale G.W. and Parmelee R.W. 1992. Abundance and distribution of earthworms in relation to landscape factors on the Georgia Piedmont, U.S.A. Soil Biol. Biochem. 24: 1357–1361.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hillel D. and Rosenzweig C. 2002. Desertification in relation to climate variability and change. Adv. Agron. 77: 1–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Himes F.L. 1998. Nitrogen, sulfur and phosphorus and the sequestering of carbon. In: Lal R., Kimble J.M., Follett R.F. and Stewart B.A. (eds), Soil Processes and the Carbon Cycle. CRC/Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 315–319.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hollis J.M., Jones R.J.A. and Palmer R.C. 1977. The effects of organic matter and particle size on the water retention properties of some soils in the West Midlands of England. Geoderma 17: 225–231.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hudson B.D. 1994. Soil organic matter and available water capacity. J. Soil Water Conserv. 49: 189–193.

    Google Scholar 

  • Intergovernment Panel on Climate Change 2001. Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Summary for Policy Makers. IPCC, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 1–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jacinthe P.A. and Lal R. 2001. A mass balance approach to address carbon dioxide evolution during erosional events. Land Degrad. Dev. 12: 329–339.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jenkinson D.S. 1988. Soil organic matter and its dynamics. In: Wild A. (ed.), Russell's Soil Conditions and Plant Growth. Longman, Essex, UK, pp. 505–561.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jenkinson D.S. 1990. The turnover of organic carbon and nitrogen in soil. Phil. Trans. Royal Soc. London (B) 329: 361–368.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jenny H. 1980. The Soil Resource: Origin and Behavior. Springer, New York, 377 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Karlen D.L. and Andrews S.S. 2000. The soil quality concept A tool for evaluating sustainability. In: Elmholt S., Stenberg B., Gronlund A. and Nuutinen V. (eds), Soil Stresses, Quality and Care. DIAS Rep. #38, Danish Inst. Agric. Su., Tjele, Denmark.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kay B.D. 1998. Soil structure and organic carbon: a review. In: Lal R., Kimble J.M. and Stewart B.A. (eds), Soil Processes and the Carbon Cycle. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 169–197.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kimball B.A., Kobayashi K. and Bindi M. 2002. Response of agricultural crops to free-air CO2 enhancement. Adv. Agron. 77: 293–368.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lal R. 1995. Global soil erosion by water and carbon dynamics. In: Lal R., Kimble J.M., Levine E. and Stewart B.A. (eds), Soils and Global Change. CRC/Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 1–34.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lal R. 1997. Degradation and resilience of soils. Phil. Trans. Royal Soc. London (B) 352: 997–1010.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lal R. 1999. Soil management and restoration for C sequestration to mitigate the accelerated greenhouse effect. Prog. Env. Sci. 1: 307–326.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lal R. 2000. World cropland soils as a source or sink for atmospheric carbon. Adv. Agron. 71: 145–191.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lal R. 2001. Potential of desertification control to sequester carbon and mitigate the greenhouse effect. Clim. Change 15: 35–72.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lal R. 2002. The potential of soils of the tropics to sequester carbon and mitigate the greenhouse effect. Adv. Agron. 74: 155–192.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lal R. 2003a. Soil erosion and the global carbon budget. Env. Intl. 29: 437–450.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lal R. 2003b. Global potential of soil carbon sequestration to mitigate the greenhouse effect. Crit. Rev. Plant Sci. 22: 151–184.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lal R. 2004. Soil carbon sequestration impacts on global climate change and food security. Science 304: 1623–1627.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lal R., Kimble J.M., Follett R.F. and Cole C.V. 1998. The Potential of U.S. Cropland to Sequester Carbon and Mitigate the Greenhouse Effect. Ann Arbor Press, Chelsea, MI, 128 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lowrance R. and Williams R.G. 1989. Carbon movement in runoff and erosion under simulated rainfall conditions. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 52: 1445–1448.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lucas R.E. and Vitosh M.L. 1978. Soil organic matter dynamics. Research Report 358. Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI.

    Google Scholar 

  • Minami K., Mosier A. and Sass R. (eds) 1994. CH4 and N2O. Global Emissions and Controls from Rice Fields and other Agricultural and Industrial Sources. National Institute Agro-Environmental Sciences, Tsukuba, Japan, 234 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell C.C., Weserman R.L., Brown J.R. and Peck T.R. 1991. Overview of long-term agronomic research. Agron. J. 83: 24–29.

    Google Scholar 

  • Monger H.C. and Gallegos R.A. 2000. Biotic and abiotic processes and rates of pedogenic carbonate accumulation in the southwestern United States–Relationship to atmospheric CO2 sequestration. In: Lal R., Kimble J.M., Eswaran H. and Stewart B.A. (eds), Global Climate Change and Pedogenic Carbonates. CRC/ Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 273–290.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oberthür S. and Ott H.E. 2000. The Kyoto Protocol: International Climate Policy for the 21st Century. Springer, Berlin, Germany.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oldeman L.R. 1994. The global extent of soil degradation. In: Greenland D.J. and Szabolcs I. (eds), Soil Resilience and Sustainable Land Use. CAB International, Wallingford, UK, pp. 99–118.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parton W.J., Schimel D.S., Cole C.V. and Ojima D.S. 1987. Analysis of factors controlling soil organic matter levels in Great Plains grasslands. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 51: 1173–1179.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Petchawee S. and Chaitep W. 1995. Organic matter management for sustainable agriculture. In: Lefroy R.D.B., Blair G.J. and Craswell E.T. (eds), Organic Matter Management in Upland Systems in Thailand. ACIAR, Canberra, Australia, pp. 21–26.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prather M. and Ehhalt D. 2001. Atmospheric chemistry and greenhouse gases. In: Intergovernment Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 239–287.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ramaswamy V. 2001. Radiative forcing of climate change. In: Intergovernment Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 349–416.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reicosky D.C., Reeves D.W., Prior S.A., Runion G.B., Rogers H.H. and Raper R.L. 1999. Effects of residue management and controlled traffic on carbon dioxide and water loss. Soil Tillage Res. 52: 153–165.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rhoton F.E. and Tyler D.D. 1990. Erosion-induced changes in the properties of a Fragipan soil. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 54: 223–228.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robertson G.P., Paul E.A. and Harwood R.R. 2000. Greenhouse gases in intensive agriculture: contributions of individual gases to the radiative forcing of the atmosphere. Science 289: 192–194.

    Google Scholar 

  • Salter P.J. and Haworth F. 1961. The available water capacity of sandy loam soil. II. The effects of farmyard manure and different primary cultivations. J. Soil Sci. 12: 335–342.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schimel D.S., Coleman D.C. and Horton K.A. 1985. Soil organic matter dynamics in paired rangeland and cropland toposequences in North Dakota. Geoderma 36: 201–214.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schimel D.S., House J.I. and Hubbard K.A. 2001. Recent patterns and mechanisms of carbon exchange by terrestrial ecosystems. Nature 414: 169–172.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schlesinger W.H. 1999. Carbon sequestration in soil. Science 284: 2095.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Singer M.J. and Ewing S. 2000. Soil quality. In: Sumner M.E. (ed.), Handbook of Soil Science. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. G271–G278.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith W.N., Desjardins R.L. and Pattey E. 2000. The net flux of carbon from agricultural soil in Canada. Global Change Biol. 6: 557–568.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith S.V., Renwick W.H., Buddenmeier R.W. and Crossland C.J. 2001. Budgets of soil erosion and deposition of sediments and sedimentary organic carbon across the conterminous United States. Global Biogeochem. Cycles 15: 697–707.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Squire V.R., Glenn E.P. and Ayoub A.T. (eds) 1995. Combating global climate change by combating land degradation. UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya, 347 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stallard R.F. 1998. Terrestrial sedimentation and the carbon cycle: coupling weathering and erosion to carbon burial. Global Biogeochem. Cycles 12: 231–257.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stevenson F.J. 1982. Humus Chemistry. Genesis, Composition, Reactions. John Wiley and Sons, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stevenson F.J. 1986. Cycles of Soil: Carbon, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Sulfur and Micronutrients. John Wiley and Sons, New York, 380 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tans P.P., Fung I.Y. and Takahashi T. 1990. Observational constraints on the global atmospheric CO2 budget. Science 247: 1431–1438.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tiessen H., Stewart J.W.B. and Betany J.R. 1982. Cultivation effects on the amount and concentration of carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus in grassland soils. Agron. J. 74: 831–834.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tisdall J.M. and Oades J.M. 1982. Organic matter and water stable aggregates in soils. J. Soil Sci. 33: 141–163.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Trustrum N.A., Tate K.R., Page M.J., Sidorchuk A. and Baisden W.T. 2002. Towards a national assessment of erosion related soil carbon losses in New Zealand. 12th ISCO Conference, 26–31 May, Beijing, China, Vol. 3: pp. 182–186.

    Google Scholar 

  • US-DOE 1999. Carbon Sequestration Research and Development. National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Veen J.A. and Paul E.A. 1981. Organic carbon dynamics in grassland soils. 1. Background information and computer simulation. Can. J. Soil Sci. 61: 185–201.

    Google Scholar 

  • Voroney R.P., Van Veen J.A. and Paul E.A. 1981. Organic C dynamics in grassland soils. 2. Model validation and simulation of the long-term effect of cultivation and rainfall erosion. Can. J. Soil Sci. 61: 211–224.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woods L.E. 1989. Active organic matter distribution in the surface 15-cm of undisturbed and cultivated soil. Biol. Fertil. Soils 8: 271–278.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wright S.F. and Milner P.D. 1994. Earthworms and other fauna in the soil. In: Hatfield J.L. and Stewart B.A. (eds), Soil Biology: Effects of Soil Quality. CRC/Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 29–60.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Lal, R. Agricultural activities and the global carbon cycle. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 70, 103–116 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1023/B:FRES.0000048480.24274.0f

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/B:FRES.0000048480.24274.0f

Navigation