Abstract
Emerging as one of the most significant health issues facing American youth today, child and adolescent exposure to community violence has generated much interest across multiple disciplines. Most research to date has focused on documenting the prevalence of community violence and the emotional and behavioral ramifications. This paper provides an overview of the current literature regarding prevalence of youth exposure to community violence, and identifies those areas where further research is warranted. In addition to examining overall rates of community violence exposure, this paper reviews the prevalence of different types of community violence, such as weapon use, physical aggression, and crime-related events. Predictors of community violence exposure, including gender, age, race, socioeconomic status, behavior patterns, and geography, are discussed.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Anderson, M., Kaufman, J., Simon, T. R., Barrios, L., Paulozzi, L., Ryan, G., et al. (2001). School-associated violent deaths in the United States, 1994–1999. JAMA, 286, 2695-2702.
Bell, C. C., & Jenkins, E. J. (1993). Community violence and children on Chicago's Southside. Psychiatry, 56, 46-54.
Berkowitz, S. J. (2003). Children exposed to community violence: The rationale for early intervention. Clinical Child and Family Review Psychology, 6(4), 293-302.
Berman, S. L., Kurtines, W. M., Silverman, W. K., & Serafini, L. T. (1996). The impact of exposure to crime and violence on urban youth. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 66, 329-336.
Buka, S. L., Stichick, T. L., Birdthistle, I., & Earls, F. J. (2001). Youth exposure to violence: Prevalence, risks, and consequences. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 71, 298-310.
Bureau of Justice Statistics. (1997). Age patterns of victims of serious violent crime(NCJ-162031). Washington DC: US Department of Justice.
Campbell, C., & Schwarz, D. F. (1996). Prevalence and impact of exposure to interpersonal violence among suburban and urban middle school students. Pediatrics, 98, 396-402.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2002, Nov 4). Youth violence. National Center for Injury Prevention and Control. Retrieved January 3, 2003, from http://www.cdc.gov/ ncipc/factsheets/yvfacts.htm
Christoffel, K. K. (1990). Violent death and injury in US children and adolescents. American Journal of Diseases of Children, 144, 697-706.
Cooley-Quille, M., Boyd, R. C., Frantz, E., & Walsh, J. (2001). Emotional and behavioral impact of exposure to community violence in inner-city adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 30, 199-206.
Cooley-Quille, M. R., Turner, S. M., & Beidel, D. C. (1995). Emotional impact of children's exposure to community violence: A preliminary study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 1362-1368.
Davis, L., & Siegel, L. J. (2000). Posttraumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents: A review and analysis. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 3, 135-154.
Delaney-Black, V., Covington, C., Ondersma, S. J., Nordstrom-Klee, B., Templin, T., Ager, J., et al. (2002). Violence exposure, trauma, and IQ and/or reading deficits among urban children. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 156, 280-285.
Dempsey, M., Overstreet, S., & Moely, B. (2000). “Approach” and “avoidance” coping and PTSD symptoms in inner-city youth. Current Psychology: Developmental, Learning, Personality, Social, 19, 28-45.
Dubrow, N. F., & Garbarino, J. (1989). Living in the war zone: Mothers and young children in a public housing development. Child Welfare, 68, 3-20.
Dulmus, C. N., & Wodarski, J. S. (2000). Trauma-related symptomatology among children of parents victimized by urban community violence. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 70(2), 272-277.
Farrell, A. D., & Bruce, S. E. (1997). Impact of exposure to community violence on violent behavior and emotional distress among urban adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 26, 2-14.
Finkelhor, D. (1995). The victimization of children: A developmental perspective. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 65, 177-193.
Finkelhor, D., & Dziuba-Leatherman, J. (1994). Children as victims of violence: A national survey. Pediatrics, 94, 413-420.
Fitzpatrick, K. M. (1997). Aggression and environmental risk among low-income African-American youth. Journal of Adolescent Health, 21, 172-178.
Fitzpatrick, K. M., & Boldizar, J. P. (1993). The prevalence and consequences of exposure to violence among African-American youth. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 32, 424-430.
Flannery, D. J., Singer, M. I., & Wester, K. (2001). Violence exposure, psychological trauma, and suicide risk in a community sample of dangerously violent adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 435-442.
Garbarino, J., Dubrow, N., Kostelny, K., & Pardo, C. (1992). Children in danger: Coping with the consequences of community violence. San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass.
Giaconia, R. M., Reinherz, H. Z., Silverman, A. B., Pakiz, B., Frost, A. K., & Cohen, E. (1995). Traumas and posttraumatic stress disorder in a community population of older adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 1369-1380.
Gladstein, J., Rusonis, E. S., & Heald, F. P. (1992). A comparison of inner-city and upper-middle class youths' exposure to violence. Journal of Adolescent Health, 13, 275-280.
Graham-Bermann, S. A., & Hughes, H. M. (2003). Intervention for children exposed to interparental violence (IPV): Assessment of needs and research priorities. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 6, 189-204.
Grogger, J. (1997). Local violence and educational attainment. Journal of Human Resources, 32(4), 659-682.
Guterman, N. B., Hahm, H. C., & Cameron, M. (2002). Adolescent victimization and subsequent use of mental health counseling services. Journal of Adolescent Health, 30, 336-345.
Halliday-Boykins, C. A., & Graham, S. (2001). At both ends of the gun: Testing the relationship between community violence exposure and youth violent behavior. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 29, 383-402.
Horowitz, K., Weine, S., & Jekel, J. (1995). PTSD symptoms in urban adolescent girls: Compounded community trauma. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 1353-1361.
Howard, M., & Hodes, M. (2000). Psychopathology, adversity, and service utilization of young refugees. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 368-377.
Hurt, H., Malmud, E., Brodsky, N. L., & Giannetta, J. (2001). Exposure to violence: Psychological and academic correlates in child witnesses. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 155, 1351-1356.
Jaycox, L. H., Stein, B. D., Kataoka, S. H., Wong, M., Fink, A., Escudero, P., et al. (2002). Violence exposure, posttraumatic stress disorder, and depressive symptoms among recent immigrant schoolchildren. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41, 1104-1110.
Jenkins, E. J., & Bell, C. C. (1994). Post-traumatic stress disorder and violence among inner city high school students. In S. Friedman (Ed.), Anxiety disorders in African Americans. New York: Springer, pp. 76-88.
Joshi, P. T., & O'Donnell, D. A. (2003). Consequences of children exposed to war and terrorism. Clinical Child and Family Psychology, 6(4), 275-292.
Kaminer, D., Seedat, S., Lockhat, R., & Stein, D. (2000). Violent trauma among child and adolescent girls: Current knowledge and implications for clinicians. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 15, S51-S59.
Klaus, P., & Rennison, C. M. (2002). Age patterns in violent victimization, 1976–2002(NCJ 190104). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Kliewer, W., Lepore, S. J., Oskin, D., & Johnson, P. D. (1998). The role of social and cognitive processes in children's adjustment to community violence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66, 199-209.
Koop, C. E., & Lundberg, G. B. (1992). Violence in America: A public health emergency. Time to bite the bullet back. JAMA, 267, 3075-3076.
Kuo, M., Mohler, B., Raudenbush, S. L., & Earls, F. J. (2000). Assessing exposure to violence using multiple informants: Application of hierarchical linear model. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 41, 1049-1056.
Linares, L. O., Heeren, T., Bronfman, E., Zuckerman, B., Augustyn, M., & Tronick, E. (2001). A mediational model for the impact of exposure to community violence on early child behavior problems. Child Development, 72, 639-652.
Lynch, M. (2003). Consequences of children's exposure to community violence. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 6(4), 265-274.
Martin, S. L., Gordon, T. E., & Kupersmidt, J. B. (1995). Survey of exposure to violence among the children of migrant and seasonal farm workers. Public Health Reports, 110, 268-276.
Martinez, P., & Richters, J. E. (1993). The NIMH Community Violence Project: II. Children's distress symptoms associated with violence exposure. Psychiatry, 56, 22-35.
Muller, R. T., Goebel-Fabbri, A. E., Diamond, T., & Dinklage, D. (2000). Social support and the relationship between family and community violence exposure and psychopathology among high risk adolescents. Child Abuse and Neglect, 24, 449-464.
Osofsky, J. D. (2003). Prevalence of children's exposure to domestic violence and child maltreatment: Implications for prevention and intervention. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 6, 161-170.
Osofsky, J. D., Wewers, S., Hann, D. M., & Fick, A. C. (1993). Chronic community violence: What is happening to our children? Psychiatry, 56, 36-45.
Overstreet, S. (2000). Exposure to community violence: Defining the problem and understanding the consequences. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 9, 7-25.
Overstreet, S., & Braun, S. (2000). Exposure to community violence and post-traumatic stress symptoms: Mediating factors. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 70, 263-271.
Overstreet, S., Dempsey, M., Graham, D., & Moely, B. (1999). Availability of family support as a moderator of exposure to community violence. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 28, 151-159.
Peltzer, K. (1999). Posttraumatic stress symptoms in a population of rural children in South Africa. Psychological Reports, 85, 646-650.
Putnam, F. W. (1997). Dissociation in children and adolescents: A developmental perspective. New York: Guilford.
Richters, J. E., & Martinez, P. (1993). The NIMH Community Violence Project: I. Children as victims of and witnesses to violence. Psychiatry, 56, 7-21.
Saigh, P. A., Mroueh, M., & Bremner, J. D. (1997). Scholastic impairments among traumatized adolescents. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35, 429-436.
Schwab-Stone, M., Chen, C., Greenberger, E., Silver, D., Lichtman, J., & Voyce, C. (1999). No Safe Haven. II: The effects of violence exposure on urban youth. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 359-367.
Schwab-Stone, M. E., Ayers, T. S., Kasprow, W., Voyce, C., Barone, C., Shriver, T., et al. (1995). No Safe Haven: A study of violence exposure in an urban community. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 1343-1352.
Shahinfar, A., Fox, N. A., & Leavitt, L. A. (2000). Preschool children's exposure to violence: Relation of behavior problems to parent and child reports. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 70, 115-125.
Shahinfar, A., Kupersmidt, J. B., & Matza, L. S. (2001). The relation between exposure to violence and social information processing among incarcerated adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 110, 136-141.
Shakoor, B. H., & Chalmers, D. (1991). Co-victimization of African-American children who witness violence: Effects on cognitive, emotional, and behavioral development. Journal of the National Medical Association, 83, 233-238.
Shaw, J. (2003). Children exposed to war/terrorism. Clinical Child and Family Review Psychology, 6(4), 237-246.
Sheley, J. F., McGee, Z. T., & Wright, J. D. (1992). Gun-related violence in and around inner-city schools. American Journal of Diseases of Children, 146, 677-682.
Singer, M. I., Anglin, T. M., Song, L. Y., & Lunghofer, L. (1995). Adolescents' exposure to violence and associated symptoms of psychological trauma. JAMA, 273, 477-482.
Stein, B. D., Zima, B. T., Elliott, M. N., Burnam, M. A., Shahinfar, A., Fox, N. A., et al. (2001). Violence exposure among school-age children in foster care: Relationship to distress symptoms. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 588-594.
Taylor, L., Zuckerman, B., Harik, V., & Groves, B. M. (1994). Witnessing violence by young children and their mothers. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 15, 120-123.
U.S. Department of Justice. (2002). Violent victimization rates by age, 1973-2001. Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Weist, M. D., Acosta, O. M., & Youngstrom, E. A. (2001). Predictors of violence exposure among inner-city youth. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 30, 187-198.
Wolfe, D. A., Crooks, C. V., Lee, V., McIntyre-Smith, & Jaffe, P. G. (2003). The effects of children's exposure to domestic violence: A meta-analysis and critique. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 6, 171-188.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Stein, B.D., Jaycox, L.H., Kataoka, S. et al. Prevalence of Child and Adolescent Exposure to Community Violence. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 6, 247–264 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1023/B:CCFP.0000006292.61072.d2
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/B:CCFP.0000006292.61072.d2