Skip to main content
Log in

Normative Life Satisfaction: Measurement Issues and a Homeostatic Model

  • Published:
Social Indicators Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Previous studies have established that, when life satisfaction is measured over a range from 0 to 100 the mean scores of Western populations average 75 ± 2.5. The consistency of these data has given rise to the idea that life satisfaction may be held under homeostatic control. This paper further investigates this hypothesis by examining the distribution of data within populations. It also examines these data with a view to elucidating various methodological issues regarding life satisfaction measurement. In terms of the methodological issues it is concluded that measurement is best achieved using bi-directional Likert scales with at least 11 choice points. It is also determined that the life satisfaction of Western populations did not change over the decade 1980–1990, and that data derived from college students cannot be validly employed as proxy general population data. In terms of data distribution, it is calculated that the normal range of life satisfaction within Western populations lies within the range 40 to 100. The consistency of this non-normal distribution is argued to be further evidence that life satisfaction is held under homestatic control, and a descriptive model is proposed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

REFERENCES

  • Andrews, F. M.: 1984, 'Construct validity and error components of survey measures: A structural modeling approach', Public Opinion Quarterly 48, pp. 409–442.

    Google Scholar 

  • Andrews, F. M.: 1991, 'Stability and change in levels and structure of subjective well-being: USA 1972 and 1988', Social Indicators Research 25, pp. 1–30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Andrews, F. M. and R. Crandall: 1976, 'The validity of measures of self-reported well-being', Social Indicators Research 3, pp. 1–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Andrews, F. M. and A. C. McKennel: 1980, 'Measures of self-reported well-being: Their affective, cognitive, and other components', Social Indicators Research 8, pp. 127–155.

    Google Scholar 

  • Andrews, F. M. and J. P. Robinson: 1991, 'Measures of subjective well-being', in J. P. Robinson and L. S. Wrightsman (eds.),Measures of Personality and Social Psychological Attitudes (Academic Press, New York), pp. 61–114.

    Google Scholar 

  • Andrews, F. M. and S. B. Withey: 1976, Social Indicators of Well-being: Americans' Perceptions of Life Quality (Plenum Press, New York).

    Google Scholar 

  • Becker, E.: 1968, The Structure of Evil (Braziller, New York).

    Google Scholar 

  • Bortner, R. W. and D. F. Hultsch: 1970, 'A multivariate analysis of correlates of life satisfaction in adulthood', Journal of Gerontology 25, pp. 41–47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brief, A. P., A. H. Butcher, J. M. George and K. E. Link: 1993, 'Integrating bottom-up and top-down theories of subjective well-being: The case of health', Journal of Personality and Social Pyschology 64, pp. 646–654.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, A., P. E. Converse and W. L. Rodgers: 1976, The Quality of American Life (Russell Sage Foundation, New York).

    Google Scholar 

  • Chang, L.: 1994, 'A psychometric evaluation of 4-point and 6-point Likert-type scales in relation to reliability and validity', Applied Psychological Measurement 18, pp. 205–216.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cummins, R. A.: 1995, 'On the trail of the gold standard for subjective well-being', Social Indicators Research 35, pp. 179–200.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cummins, R. A.: 1997, The Comprehensive Quality of Life Scale-Intellectual/Cognitive Disability (ComQol-I5), 5th edition (School of Psychology, Deakin University, Melbourne).

    Google Scholar 

  • Cummins, R. A.: 1998, 'The second approximation to an international standard for life satisfaction', Social Indicators Research 43, pp. 307–334.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cummins, R. A.: 2000, 'Objective and subjective quality of life: An interactive model', Social Indicators Research 52, pp. 55–72.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cummins, R. A. and E. Gullone: 2000, 'Why we should not use 5-point Likert scales: The case for subjective quality of life measurement', Proceedings, Second International Conference on Quality of Life in Cities (National University of Singapore, Singapore), pp. 74–93.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cummins, R. A. and H. Nistico: 2002, 'Maintaining life satisfaction: The role of positive cognitive bias', Journal of Happiness Studies 3, pp. 37–69.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cummins, R. A., E. Gullone and A. L. D. Lau: 2002a, 'A model of subjective well being homeostasis: The role of personality', in E. Gullone and R. A. Cummins (eds.) (Kluwer, Dordrecht) (in press).

    Google Scholar 

  • Cummins, R. A., R. Eckersley, J. Pallant, J. van Vugt and R. Misajon: 2002b, 'Developing a national index of subjective wellbeing: The Australian Unity Wellbeing Index', Social Indicators Research (in press).

  • Diefenbach, M. A., N. D. Weinstein and J. O'Reilly: 1993, 'Scales for assessing perceptions of health hazard susceptibility', Health Education Research 8, pp. 181–192.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E. and M. Diener: 1995, 'Cross-cultural correlates of life satisfaction and self-esteem', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 68, pp. 653–663.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haavio-Mannila, E.: 1971, 'Satisfaction with family, work, leisure and life among men and women', Human Relations 24, pp. 585–601.

    Google Scholar 

  • Helzel, M. F., J. G. Goodale, R. C. Joyner and R. J. Burke: 1973, 'Development of a quality of working life questionnaire: Item discrimination study', in A. H. Portigal (ed.), Measuring the Quality of Working Life (Department of Labor, Ottawa), pp. 47–62, 207.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jaeschke, R. and G. H. Guyatt: 1990, 'How to develop and validate a new quality of life instrument', in B. Spilker (ed.), Quality of Life Assessment in Clinical Trials (Raven Press, New York), pp. 47–57.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lance, C. E. and C. E. Sloan: 1993, 'Relationships between overall and life facet satisfaction: A Multitrait Multimethod (MTMM) Study', Social Indicators Research 30, pp. 1–15.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lissitz, R. W. and S. B. Green: 1975, 'Effect of the number of scale points on reliability: A Monte Carlo approach', Journal of Applied Psychology 60, pp. 10–13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lo, S. K.: 1997, Personal communication.

  • Mastekaasa, A.: 1992, 'Marriage and psychological well-being: Some evidence on selection into marriage', Journal of Marriage and the Family 54, pp. 901–911.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mastekaasa, A.: 1994, 'Martial status, distress, and well-being: An international comparison', Journal of Comparative Family Studies 25, pp. 183–205.

    Google Scholar 

  • Near, J. P. and P. L. Rechner: 1993, 'Cross-cultural variations in predictors of life satisfaction: An historical view of differences among West European countries', Social Indicators Research 29, pp. 109–121.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nieves, C. C., R. A. Charter and M. J. Aspinall: 1991, 'Relationships between effective coping and perceived quality of life in spinal cord injured patients', Rehabilitation Nursing 16, pp. 129–132.

    Google Scholar 

  • Palmore, E. and C. Luikart: 1972, 'Health and social factors related to life satisfaction', Journal of Health and Social Behaviour 13, pp. 68–80.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rapley, M. and L. Hopgood: 1997, 'Quality of life in a community-based service in rural Australia', Journal of Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities 22, pp. 125–141.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rodgers,W.: 1982, 'Trends in reported happiness within demographically defined subgroups, 1957-78', Social Forces 60, pp. 826–842.

    Google Scholar 

  • Saris, W. E. and A. Scherpenzeel: 1995, 'Correction for measurement error in life satisfaction research', in W. E. Saris and A. Munnich (eds.), The Multitrait-Multimethod Approach to Evaluate Measurement Instruments (Eotvos University Press, Budapest), pp. 243–267.

    Google Scholar 

  • Saris, W. E., Van Wijk, T. and A. Scherpenzeel: 1998, 'Validity and reliability of subjective social indicators: The effect of different measures of association', Social Indicators Research 45, pp. 173–199.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scherpenzeel, A.: 1995, 'Meta-analysis of a European comparative study', in W. E. Saris and A. Munnich (eds.), The Multitrait-Multimethod Approach to Evaluate Measurement Instruments (Eotvos University Press, Budapest), pp. 225–242.

    Google Scholar 

  • Snyder, E. E. and E. A. Spreitzer: 1974, 'Involvement in sport and psychological well-being', International Journal of Sport Psychology 5, pp. 28–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spitze, G., J. R. Logan, G. Joseph and E. Lee: 1994, 'Middle generation roles and the well-being of men and women', Journal of Gerontology 49, pp. S107–116.

    Google Scholar 

  • Veenhoven, R.: 1993, Happiness in Nations (University of Rotterdam, Rotterdam).

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Cummins, R.A. Normative Life Satisfaction: Measurement Issues and a Homeostatic Model. Social Indicators Research 64, 225–256 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024712527648

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024712527648

Keywords

Navigation