Abstract
Despite the popularity of mentoring programs, the relational dimension of mentoring has not been elucidated. Traditional conceptions of mentoring may exclude factors that are particularly important for women and girls, thus limiting the efficacy of mentoring programs for female adolescents. We suggest that the presence of relational qualities in the mentoring relationship (e.g., empathy, engagement, authenticity, and empowerment) strongly influences the success of mentoring in the lives of young women. In this study, we use a promising new measure of mentoring, the Relational Health Index – Mentor, to explore the impact of relational aspects of mentoring in female college students. We found that mentoring relationships high in relational qualities were associated with higher self-esteem and less loneliness.
Similar content being viewed by others
REFERENCES
Amaro, H. (1995). Love, sex, and power: Considering women's realities in HIV Prevention. American Psychologist, 50, 437-447.
Barone, C., Trickett, E. J., Schmid, K. D., & Leone, P. E. (1993). Transition tasks and resources: Anecological approach to life after high school. Prevention in Human Services, 10, 179-204.
Beeber, L. S. (1998). Social support, self-esteem, and depressive symptoms in young American women. Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 30, 91-92.
Belle, D. (1991). Gender differences in the social moderators of stress. In A. Monat & R. Lazarus (Eds.), Stress and coping: An anthology (3rd ed., pp. 258-274). New York: Columbia University Press.
Bergman, S. J. (1995). Men's psychological development: A relational perspective. In R. F. Levant & W. S. Pollack (Eds.), A new psychology of men (pp. 68-90). New York: Basic Books.
Bogat, G. A., Liang, B., Caldwell, R. A., Davidson, W., Bristor, M., Phillips, M., et al. (1993). Alternative schools: A school transition for adolescent mothers. Prevention in Human Services, 10, 151-163.
Bryant, B. K. (1985). The neighborhood walk: Sources of support in middle childhood. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 50(3, Serial No. 210).
Burgoyne, N., & Kelly, J. G. (1991). Understanding mentoring among African-American youth: A collaborative approach. Paper presented at the third biennial conference on Community Research and Action, Tempe, AZ.
Burnett, P. C., & Demnar, W. J. (1996). The relationship between closeness to significant others and self-esteem. Journal of Family Studies, 2, 121-129.
Bush, D. M., & Simmons, R. G. (1987). Gender and coping with the entry into early adolescence. In R. C. Barnett, L. Biener, & G. Baruch (Eds.), Gender and stress (pp. 185-217). NewYork: Free Press.
Candy, S. G., Troll, L. W., & Levy, S. G. (1981). A developmental exploration of friendship functions in women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 5, 456-572.
Cassidy, J. (1988). Child-mother attachment and the self in six-year-olds. Child Development, 59, 121-134.
Clawson, J. G. (1980). Mentoring in managerial careers. In C. B. Derr (Ed.), Work, family, and the career: New frontiers in theory and research (pp. 144-165). New York: Praeger.
Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., & Mermelstein, R. (1983). A global measure of perceived stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24, 385-396.
Cohen, E. L., & Wills, T. H. (1985). Social support and health. New York: Academic Press.
Collins, N. L., & Miller, L. C. (1994). Self-disclosure and liking: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 116, 457-475.
Covington, S. (1998). Women in prison: Approaches in the treatment of our most invisible population. Women and Therapy, 21, 141-155.
Cowen, E. L., & Work, W. (1988). Resilient children, psychological wellness, and primary prevention. American Journal of Community Psychology, 16, 591-607.
Crockenberg, S. B., & Soby, B. A. (1989). Self-esteem and teenage pregnancy. In A. M. Mecca, N. J. Smelser, & J. Vasconcellos (Eds.), The importance of self-esteem (pp. 125-164). Berkeley: University of California Press.
Daloz, L. A. (1983). Mentors: Teachers who make a difference. Change, 15, 24-27.
Daloz, L. A. (1986). Effective teaching and mentoring: Realizing the transformational power of adult learning experiences. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Darling, N. (1991). The influence of challenging and supportive relationships and the academic achievement of adolescents. Unrelated adults in adolescents' lives (pp. 121-140). NewYork: Walter de Gruyter.
Edlind, E. P., & Haensly, P. A. (1985). Gifts of mentorships. Gifted Child Quarterly, 29, 55-60.
Finkelstein, N. (1996). Using the relational model as a context for treating pregnant and parenting chemically dependent women. In B. Underhill & D. Finnegan (Eds.), Chemical dependency: Women at risk (pp. 23-44). New York: Harrington Park Press.
Fiore, J., Becker, J., & Coppell, D. B. (1983). Social network interactions: A buffer or a stress? American Journal of Community Psychology, 11, 423-439.
Flaxman, E., Ascher, C., & Harrington, C. (1988). Youth mentoring: Programs and practices. New York: ERIC Clearinghouse on Urban Education, Box 40, Teachers College, Columbia University.
Frank, S. J., Pirsch, L. A., & Wright, V. C. (1990). Late adolescents' perceptions of their relationships with their parents: Relationships among deidealization, autonomy, relatedness, and insecurity and implications for adolescent adjustment and ego identity status. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 19, 571-588.
Freedman, M. (1992). The kindness of strangers: Reflections on the mentoring movement. Philadelphia: Public/Private Ventures.
Freedman, M. (1993). The kindness of strangers: Adult mentors, urban youth, and the new voluntarism. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Galbo, J. J. (1986). Adolescents' perceptions of significant adults: Implications for the family, the school, and youth serving agencies. Children and Youth Services Review, 8, 37-51.
Galbo, J. J., Demetrulius, D. M., & Crippen, C. M. (1990). Recollections of significant adults by pre-service teachers and non-teaching students. Teacher Education Quarterly, Spring, 17-37.
Gambone, M. A. (1993). Strengthening programs for youth-Promoting adolescent development in the JPTA system. Philadelphia: Public/Private Ventures.
Garmezy, N. (1985). Stress resistant children: The search for protective factors. In J. E. Stevenson (Ed.), Recent research in developmental psychopathology (pp. 213-233). Oxford: Pergamon.
Gawronski, I., & Privette, G. (1997) Empathy and reactive depression. Psychological Reports, 80, 1043-1049.
Genero, N. P., Miller, J. B., Surrey, J., & Baldwin, L. M. (1992). Measuring perceived mutuality in close relationships: Validation of the Mutual Psychological Development Questionnaire. Journal of Family Psychology, 6, 36-48.
Gilligan, C. J., Ward, J., & Taylor, J. (1988). Mapping the moral domain: A contribution of women's thinking to psychological theory and education. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Gottlieb, B. H. (1992). Social support strategies: Guidelines for mental heath practice. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Hagerty, B. M., Williams, R. A., Coyne, J. C., & Early, M. R. (1996). Sense of belonging and indicators of social and psychological functioning. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing, 10, 235-244.
Hall, C. B., & Nelson, G. (1996). Social networks, social support, personal empowerment, and the adaptation of psychiatric consumers/survivors: Path analytic models. Social Science and Medicine, 43, 1743-1754.
Hamilton, S. F. (1991). Unrelated adults in adolescents' lives: Perspectives from four countries (Occasional Paper No. 29). Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Western Societies Program.
Hamilton, S. F., & Darling, N. (1989). Mentors in adolescents' lives. In K. Hurrelman & S. Hamilton (Eds.), The social world of adolescents (pp. 199-215). New York: DeGruyter.
Healy, C. C., & Welchert, A. J. (1990). Mentoring relations: A definition to advance research and practice. Educational Researcher, 12, 17-21.
Hoffman, J. A. (1984). Psychological separation of late adolescents from their parents. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 31, 170-178.
Hunt, D. M., & Michael, C. (1983). Mentorship: A Career training and development tool. Academy of Management Review, 8, 475-485.
Johnson, J., & McCutcheon, S. (1980). Assessing life stress in older children and adolescents: Preliminary findings with the Life Events Checklist. In I. E. Sarason & C. D. Spielberger (Eds), Stress and anxiety (Vol. 7). New York: Hemisphere.
Jordan, J. V. (1992). Relational Resilience. Works in Progress 57. Wellesley, MA: Stone Center Working Paper Series.
Jordan, J. V. (1997). The Relational Model is a source of empowerment for women. In M. R. Walsh (Ed.), Women, men and gender: Ongoing debates. New Haven, CT: Yale.
Jordan, J. V., Kaplan, A. G., Miller, J. B., Stiver, I. P., & Surrey, J. L. (1991). Women's growth in connection. New York: Guilford.
Kay, B., & Christophel, D. M. (1995). The relationships among manager communication openness, nonverbal immediacy, and subordinate motivation. Communication Research Reports, 12, 200-205.
Kenny, M. E., & Donaldson, G. A. (1991). Contributions of parental attachment and family structure to the social and psychological functioning of first-year college students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38, 479-486.
Kenny, M. E., & Donaldson, G. A. (1992). The relationship of parental attachment and psychological separation to the adjustment of first-year college women. Journal of College Student Development, 33, 431-438.
Klaw, E. L., & Rhodes, J. E. (1995). Mentor relationships and the career development of pregnant and parenting African-American teenagers. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 19, 551-562.
Kram, K. E. (1985). Mentoring at work: Developmental relationships in organizational life. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman.
Levinson, D., Darrow, C., Klein, E., Levinson, M., & McKee, B. (1979). The seasons of a man's life. New York: Knopf.
Liang, B., & Bogat, G. A. (1994). Culture, control, and coping: New perspectives on social support. American Journal of Community Psychology, 22, 123-147.
Liang, B., Kauh, T., Tracy, A. J.,Williams, L. M., & Taylor, C. A. (2000). Mentor formation and mentor quality in Asian American and Caucasian college women. Manuscript submitted for publication.
Liang, B., Taylor, C. A., Williams, L. M., Tracy, A. J., Jordan, J. V., & Miller, J. B. (1998). The new Relational Health Indices: A confirmation study of women's relationships. Wellesley Centers for Women, Working Papers Series, Pub. No. 290.
Liang, B., Tracy, A. J., Taylor, C. A., Williams, L. M., Jordan, J. V., & Miller, J. B. (2002). The new Relational Health Indices: A study of women's relationships. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 26, 25-35.
Lin, N. (1986). Modeling the effects of social support. In N. Lin, A. Dean, & W. M. Ensel (Eds.), Social support, life events, and depression (pp. 173-209). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
Liu, X., Kaplan, H. B., & Risser, W. (1992). Decomposing the reciprocal relationships between academic achievement and general self-esteem. Youth and Society, 24, 123-148.
Lopez, F. G. (1991). Patterns of family conflict and their relation to college student adjustment. Journal of Counseling and Development, 69, 257-260.
Maton, K. I. (1990) Meaningful involvement in instrumental activity and well-being: Studies of older adolescent and at-risk urban teenagers. American Journal of Community Psychology, 18, 297-320.
Miller, J. B., & Stiver, I. P. (1997). The healing connection. Boston: Beacon Press.
Nelson, M. (1996). Separation versus connection, the gender controversy: Implications for counseling women. Journal of Counseling and Development, 74, 339-344.
Philip, K., & Hendry, L. B. (1996). Young people and mentoring-Towards a typology. Journal of Adolescence, 19, 189-201.
Rhodes, J. E. (1993). Easing postpartum school transitions through parent mentoring programs. Prevention in Human Services, 10, 169-178.
Rhodes, J. E., Ebert, L., & Fischer, K. (1992). Natural mentors: An overlooked resource in the social networks of adolescent mothers. American Journal of Community Psychology, 20, 445-461.
Rhodes, J. E., & Englund, S. (1994). School-based, behavioral interventions for promoting social competence. In D. Glenwick & L. A. Jason (Eds.), Promoting health and mental health: Behavioral approaches to prevention. New York: Springer.
Riggs, S., & Bright, M. (1997). Dissociative identity disorder: A feminist approach to inpatient treatment using Jean Baker Miller's relational model. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing, 11, 218-224.
Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Russell, D., Cutrona, C. E., Rose, J., & Yurko, K. (1984). Sound and emotional loneliness: An examination of Weiss's typology of loneliness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 1313-1321.
Rutter, M. (1987). Psychosocial resilience and protective mechanisms. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 57, 57-72.
Schreurs, K. M. G., & Buunk, B. P. (1996). Closeness, autonomy, equity, and relationship satisfaction in lesbian couples. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 20, 577-592.
Sheffield, M., Carey, J., Patenaude, W., & Lambert, M. J. (1995). An exploration of the relationship between interpersonal problems and psychological health. Psychological Reports, 76, 947-956.
Shulman, S., & Knafo, D. (1997). Balancing closeness and individuality in adolescent close relationships. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 21, 687-702.
Smart, R. G., & Walsh, G. W. (1993). Predictors of depression in street youth. Adolescence, 28, 41-53.
Spreitzer, G. (1995). An empirical test of a comprehensive model of intrapersonal empowerment in the workplace. American Journal of Community Psychology, 23, 601-629.
Sullivan, A. M. (1996). From mentor to muse: Recasting the role of women in relationship with urban adolescent girls. In B. J. R. Leadbeater & N. Way (Eds.), Urban girls: Resisting stereotypes, creating identities, (pp. 226-249). New York: New York University Press.
Surrey, J. (1985). The “self-in-relation”: A theory of women's development. Works in progress 84:02. Wellesley, MA: Stone Center Working Paper Series.
Taylor, D. N., & del Pilar, J. (1992). Self-esteem, anxiety, and drug use. Psychological Reports, 71, 896-898.
Torrance, E. P. (1983). Role of mentors in creative achievement. The Creative Child and Adult Quarterly, 8, 8-18.
Vega, W. A., Zimmerman, R. S., Warheit, G. J., & Apospori, E. (1993). Risk factors for early adolescent drug use in four ethnic and racial groups. American Journal of Public Health, 83(2), 185-189.
Waldrop, M., & Halverson, C. (1975). Intensive and extensive peer-behavior: Longitudinal and cross-sectional analysis. Child Development, 46, 19-26.
Westkott, M. C. (1997). On the new psychology of women: A cautionary view. In M. R. Walsh (Ed.), Women, men, and gender: Ongoing debates. New Haven, CT: Yale.
Wiseman, H. (1997). Interpersonal relatedness and self-definition in the experience of loneliness during the transition to university. Personal Relationships, 4, 285-299.
Youngs, G. A., Rathge, R., Mullis, R., & Mullis, A. (1990). Adolescent stress and self-esteem. Adolescence, 25, 333-341.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Liang, B., Tracy, A.J., Taylor, C.A. et al. Mentoring College-Age Women: A Relational Approach. Am J Community Psychol 30, 271–288 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1014637112531
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1014637112531