Abstract
In this study caring is shown to be a membership‐bound activity to kin and gender categories with strong moral connotations. “Being a daughter” or “being a son” are good enough reasons for becoming a caregiver, more so for women than for men. Caregivers were interviewed within the research project “The role of women in family care of disabled elderly” conducted by the Social and Economic Research Department of INRCA, Ancona, Italy. Transcripts of the interviews were analyzed through a detailed discourse analysis within an ethnomethodological framework. Interview data are treated as interactional encounters that occasion members to display relevant aspects of their identities and morally adequate images of being a caregiver. In the interview interaction, interlocutors display an orientation towards the production of a moral order in which duty and responsibilities are allocated on the basis of gender distinction. Males are generally described as not being responsible for caring tasks, except for situations in which females are absent or sick, that is, for “serious reasons”. Caregivers' perception of time dedicated to caring is pervasive. Most caregivers said it occupied all their time, but gender differences were noticeable. Caring tasks are recognized as gender specific practices, thus failing to carry out these tasks is morally sanctionable when women are involved, but not so for men. Many caregivers described caring for older relatives as an intense source of stress, involving serious physical and psychological problems. The study on moral and identity issues related to caregiving highlights endangering constructions of caring.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abel, E.K. (1990). Daughters Caring for Elderly Parents. In J.F. Gubrium and A. Sankara (Eds.), The Home Care Experience: Ethnograph Policy, pp. 189–206. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Abel, E.K. (1991). Who Cares for the Elderly? Public Policy and the Experience of Adult Daughters. Philadelpia: Temple University Press.
Abel, E.K. (1994). Historical Perspective on Caregiving: Documenting Women's Experiences. In A. Sankar and J.F. Gubrium (Eds.), Qualitative Methods in Aging Research, pp. 227–241. Thousands Oaks, CA: Sage.
Allen, I. and Perkins, E. (1995). The Future of Family Care for Older People. London: HMSO.
Arber, S. and Ginn, J. (Eds.) (1991). Gender and Later Life. London: Sage.
Arber, S. and Ginn, J. (1995). Gender Differences in Informal Caring. Health and Social Care in the Community 3: 19–31.
Arber, S. and Evandrou, M. (1997). Mapping the Territory. In S. Arber & M. Evandrou (Eds.), Ageing, Independence and the Life Course. London: Kingsley.
Antaki, C. and Widdicombe, S. (1998). Identities in Talk. London: Sage.
Aronson, J. (1990). Women's Perspective on Informal Care of the Elderly: Public Ideology and Personal Experience of Giving and Receiving Care. Ageing and Society 10: 61–84.
Atkinson, M.J. and Heritage, J. (Eds.) (1984). Structures of Social Action. Studies in Conversational Analysis. Cambridge: University Press.
Baber, K and Allen, K. (1992). Women and Families: A Feminist Reconstruction. New York: Guilford.
Baker, C. (1984). The “Search for Adultness”: Membership Work in Adolescent-Adult Talk. Human Studies7: 301–323.
Baker, C. (1997a). Ticketing Rules: Categorization and Moral Ordering in a School Staff Meeting. In S. Hester and P. Eglin (Eds.), Culture in Action. Studies in Membership Categorization Analysis, pp. 77–98. Washington: International Institute for Ethnomethodology and Conversation Analysis and University Press of America.
Baker, C. (1997b). Membership Categorization and Interview Accounts. In D. Silverman (Ed.), Qualitative Research. Theory, Method and Practice, pp. 130–143. London: Sage.
Baker, C. and Keogh, J. (1995). Accounting for Achievement in Parent-Teacher Interviews. Human Studies18(2/3): 263–300.
Baldassarre, G. (1995). Il ruolo della famiglia nell'assistenza all'anziano non autosufficiente: problemi, risorse, proposte. Giornale di Gerontologia 43: 303–311.
Baruch, G. (1981). Moral tales: Parents' Stories of Encounters with the Health Profession. Sociology of Health and Illness3(3): 275–296.
Caro, F.G. and Leventhal Stern, A. (1995). Balancing Formal and Informal Care: Meeting Needs in a Resource-Constrained Program. Home Health Care Services Quarterly 15(4): 67–81.
Clarke, L. (1995). Family Care and Change Family Structure: Bad News for the Elderly? In I. Allen and E. Perkins (Eds.), pp. 19–49. The Future of Family Care for Older People. HMSO: London.
Coupland, N., Coupland, J. and Giles, H. (1991). Language, Society and the Elderly. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.
Coupland, N., Coupland, J., Giles, H. and Henwood, K. (1991). Formulating Age: Dimensionsof Age Identity in Elderly Talk. Discourse Processes 14: 87–106.
Coupland, N., Coupland, J. and Grainger, K. (1991). Intergenerational Discourse: Contextual Versions of Ageing and Elderliness. Ageing and Society 11: 189–208.
Crawford, M. (1995). Talking Difference. On Gender and Language. London: Sage.
Dalley, G. (1993). Caring: A Legitimate Interest of Older Women. In M. Bernard and K. Meade (Eds.), Women Come to Age: Perspectives on the Lives of Older Women, pp. 106–190. London: Arnold.
Davidson, J. (1984). Subsequent Versions of Invitations, Offers, Requests and Proposals Dealing with Potential Rejection. In J.M. Atkinson and J. Heritage (Eds.), Structures of Social Action, pp. 102–128. Cambridge: University Press.
Dooghe, G. and Appleton, N. (Eds.) (1995). Elderly Women in Europe. Bruxelles: Centrumvor Bevolkings.
Edwars, D. (1998). The Relevant Thing About Her: Social Identity Category in Use. In C. Antaki and S. Widdicombe (Eds.), Identities in Talk, pp. 15–33. London: Sage.
EOC (Equal Opportunity Commission). (1982). Who Care for the Carers. Manchester: EOC.
Facchini, C. and Scortegagna, R. (1994). Italia: Alternative all'istituzionalizzazione e ruolo centrale delle donne. In F. Lesemann and C. Martin (Eds.), Assistenza a domicilio, famiglia, anziani, pp. 33–69. Milano: Angeli.
Finch, J. and Groves, D. (Eds.) (1983). A Labour of Love: Women, Work and Caring. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Garfinkel, H. (1967). Studies in Ethnomethodology. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
Garfinkel, H. and Sacks, H. (1970). On Formal Structures of Practical Actions. In J.C. McKinney and E.A. Tiryakian (Eds.), Theoretical Sociology, pp. 338–366. New York: Appleton Century Crofts.
Garfinkel, H. (1991). Respecifications: Evidence for Locally Produced, Naturally Accountable Phenomenon of Order, Logic, Reason, Meaning, Method, etc. In and So of the Essential Haecceity of Immortal Ordinary Society — An Announcement of Studies. In G. Button (Ed.), Ethnomethodology and the human sciences, pp. 10–19. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Graham, H. (1983). Caring: A Labour of Love. In J. Finch and D. Groves (Eds.), A Labour of Love: Women, Work and Caring. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Hekman, J.S. (1995). Moral Voices, Moral Selves. Cambridge: Polity.
Hester, S. and Eglin, P. (Eds.) (1997). Culture in Action. Studies in Membership Categorization Analysis. Washington: International Institute for Ethnomethodology and Conversation Analysis and University Press of America.
Jalbert, P.L. (1989). Categorization and Beliefs: New Accounts of Haitian and Cuban Refugees. In D. Helm, W.T. Anderson, A.J. Meehan and A.W. Rawls (Eds.), The Interactional Order. New York: Irvington.
Jayyusi, L. (1984). Categorization and the Moral Order. Boston: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Jayyusi, L (1991). Values and Moral Judgment: Communicative Praxis. In G. Button (Ed.), Ethnomethodology and the Human Sciences, pp. 227–251. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Jenkins, C.L. (1997). Women, Work, and Caregiving: How Do These Roles Affect Women's Well-Being? Journal of Women and Aging 9(3): 27–45.
Land, H. and Rose, H. (1985). Compulsory Altruism for Some or an Altruistic Society for All? In P. Beam, J. Ferris and D Whynes (Eds.), In Defence of Welfare. London: Tavistock.
Matthews, A.M. and Campbell, L.D. (1995). Gender Roles, Employment and Informal Care. In S. Arber and J. Ginn (Eds.), Connecting Gender and Ageing, pp. 129–143. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Mengani, M. and Lamura, G. (1995). Elderly Women, Family Structure and Care Patterns in Italy. In G. Dooghe & N. Appleton (Eds.), Elderly Women in Europe. Bruxelles: Centrum vor Bevolkings.
Moerman, M. (1996). The Field of Analyzing Foreign Language Conversations. Journal of Pragmatics 26: 147–158.
Neal, M.B., Ingersoll-Dayton, B. and Starrels, M.E. (1997). Gender and Relationships Differences in Caring Patterns Consequences Among Employed Caregivers. The Gerontologist 37(6): 804–816.
Ochs, E. (1979). Transcription as Theory. In E. Ochs and B.B. Schieffelin (Eds.), Developmental Pragmatics, pp. 43–72. New York: Academic Press.
Ochs, E. (1992). Indexing Gender. In A. Duranti and C. Goodwin (Eds.), Rethinking Context. Language as an Interactive Phenomenon, pp. 335–358. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Paoletti, I. (1996). La costruzione sociale dell'immagine dell'anziana. Oggidomani Anziani 9(1): 21–35.
Paoletti, I. (1997a). La produzione dell'identità nell'intervista con anziane, In A. Macarino (Ed.), Analisi della Conversazione e prospettive di ricerca in etnometodologia, pp. 235–247. Urbino: Edizioni Quattroventi.
Paoletti, I. (1997b). A Half Life: Women Caregivers of Older Disabled Relatives. Paper presented at: The ESA conference, University of Essex, Colchester, 24—27 August.
Paoletti, I. (1998a). Being an Older Woman: A Study in the Social Production of Identity. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Paoletti, I. (1998b). Handling “Incoherence” According to the Speaker's On-Sight Categorisation. In C. Antaki and S. Widdicombe (Eds.), Identities in Talk, pp. 171–190. London: Sage.
Paoletti, I. (1998c). Intergenerational Solidarity: Membership Categorization and Time Appraisal of Carers of Disabled Elderly.” Paper presented at: The International Conference “Crossroads in Cultural Studies”, session: “Social Construction of Age and the Life Course,” p. 26. Tampere, Finland, June 28— July 1, 1998.
Paoletti, I. (1998d). Caring for Older People: A Gendered Practice. Paper to be presented at the ISA conference, RC 11 & RC 32 “Women and Aging”. Montreal, 27 July—3 August, 1998.
Paoletti, I. (1998e). Indicazioni per la modifica del questionario per le assistenti” Rapporto di Ricerca: Dipartimento di Ricerche Gerontologiche, INRCA, Ancona Italy.
Paoletti, I. (1999). A Half Life: Women Caregivers of Older Disabled Relatives. Journal of Women and Aging 11(1): 53–67.
Paoletti I. (forthcoming 2001). Caring for Older People: A Gendered Practice. International Journal of Aging and Human Development.
Perkins. The Future of Family Care for Older People. HMSO: London.
Pohl, J.M., Boyd, C and Given, B.A. (1997). Mother-Daughter Relationships During the First Year of Caregiving: A Quality Study. Journal of Women and Aging 9(1/2): 133–149.
Pomerantz, A. (1984). Agreeing and Disagreeing with Assessments: Some Features of Preferred/ Dispreferred Turn Shapes. In M.J. Atkinson and J. Heritage (Eds.), Structures of Social Action, pp. 57–101. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Pomerantz, A. (1989). Giving Evidence as a Conversational Practice. In D. Helm, W.T. Anderson, A.J. Meehan and A.W. Rawls (Eds.), The Interactional Order. New York: Irvington.
Rose, H. and Bruce, E. (1995). Mutual Care but Differential Esteem: Caring Between Older Couples. In S. Arber and J. Ginn (Eds.), Connecting Gender and Ageing, pp. 114–128. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Sacks, H. (1972). On the Analysability of Stories by Children. In J Gumperz and D Hymes (Eds.), Directions in Sociolinguistics, pp. 325–345. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Sacks, H. (1984). On Doing “Being Ordinary”. In M.J. Atkinson and J. Heritage (Eds.), Structures of Social Action. Studies in Conversational Analysis, pp. 413–429. Cambridge: University Press.
Sacks, H. (1992). Lectures on Conversation, vols I and II. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.
Schenkein, J. (1978). Identity Negotiation in Conversation. In J. Schenkein (Ed.), Studies in the Organization of Conversational Interaction. New York: Academic Press.
Silverman, D. (1993). Interpreting Qualitative Data. London: Sage.
Silverman, M. and Huelsman, E. (1990). The Dynamics of Long-Term Familial Caregiving. In J.F. Gubrium and A. Sankara (Eds.), The Home Care Experience, pp. 173–187. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Taccani, P. (1994). Dentro la cura. Milano: Angeli.
Taylor, E.L. (1989). Language and The Study of Shared Cultural Knowledge. In D. Helm, W.T. Anderson, A.J. Meehan and A.W. Rawls (Eds.), The Interactional Order. New York: Irvington.
Ungerson, C. (1983). Policy is Personal: Sex Gender and Informal Care. London: Tavistock.
Walker, A. (1995). The Family and the Mixed Economy of Care In I. Allen and E. Perkins (Eds.), The Future of Family Care for Older People, pp. 201–220. London: HMSO.
Watson, R. and Weinberg, M. (1982). Interviews and the Interactional Construction of Accounts of Homosexual Identity. Social Analysis11: 56–78.
Watson, R. (1997). Some General Reflections on “Categorization” and “Sequence” in the Analysis of Conversation. In S. Hester and P. Eglin (Eds.), Culture in Action. Studies in Membership Categorization Analysis, pp. 49–75. Washington: International Institute for Ethnomethodology and Conversation Analysis and University Press of America.
West, C., Lazar, M.M. and Kramarae, C. (1997). Gender in Discourse. In T.A. van Dijk (Ed.), Discourse as Social Interaction.>London: Sage.
Williams, J., Lyons, B. and Rowland, D. (1997). Unmet Long-Term Needs of Elderly People in the Community: A Review of Literature. Home Health Care Services Quarterly 16(1/ 2): 93–119.
Widdicombe, S. (1998). “But You Don't Class Yourself”: The Interactional Management of Category Membership and Non-Membership. In C. Antaki and S. Widdicombe (Eds.), Identities in Talk, pp. 52–70. London: Sage.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Paoletti, I. Membership Categories and Time Appraisal in Interviews with Family Caregivers of Disabled Elderly. Human Studies 24, 293–325 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1012248710684
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1012248710684