Skip to main content

Advertisement

Log in

Familial Influences on Poverty Among Young Children in Black Immigrant, U.S.-born Black, and Nonblack Immigrant Families

  • Published:
Demography

Abstract

This study examines how familial contexts affect poverty disparities between the children of immigrant and U.S.-born blacks, and among black and nonblack children of immigrants. Despite lower gross child poverty rates in immigrant than in U.S.-born black families, accounting for differences in family structure reveals that child poverty risks among blacks are highest in single-parent black immigrant families. In addition, within two-parent immigrant families, child poverty declines associated with increasing assimilation are greater than the respective declines in single-parent families. The heads of black immigrant households have more schooling than those of native-black households. However, increased schooling has a weaker negative association with child poverty among the former than among the latter. In terms of racial disparities among the children of immigrants, poverty rates are higher among black than nonblack children. This black disadvantage is, however, driven by the outcomes of first-generation children of African and Hispanic-black immigrants. The results also show that although children in refugee families face elevated poverty risks, these risks are higher among black than among nonblack children of refugees. In addition, the poverty-reducing impact associated with having an English-proficient household head is about three times lower among black children of immigrants than among non-Hispanic white children of immigrants.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. One implication of using this definition is that it may not account for variations in poverty in immigrant families with different numbers of immigrant parents. This issue is an important one. In this study, however, the focus is limited to how the children of immigrants in general compare with the children of the U.S.-born and on racial disparities among the former.

  2. According to these data, about 92% of all young children in black immigrant families are black.

  3. The ethnic origin of the household head is used if both the household head and spouse in two-parent households are immigrants with different ethnic origins. This occurs in only about 5% of all immigrant households.

  4. In order to limit the possible attrition effects associated with information on the years of arrival of immigrants who arrived in the United States in earlier decades, my indicator of refugee status focuses only on immigrants arriving in the five-year period preceding the 2000 census, that is, recent refugees.

  5. To emphasize racial differences among the children of immigrants, dummy variables for black and non-Hispanic white children are among the race dummy variables whose main effects are estimated in these models. This facilitates the use of interaction terms to illustrate variations in the impacts of factors such as living in refugee families and parental human capital among black and white children of immigrants. Hispanic white children are, therefore, the omitted category in models in the second stage of the analysis.

  6. Supplementary analyses reveal that the 50% refugee cutoff point (based on the total immigrant arrivals divided by total refugee arrivals) used to identify refugees is fairly robust. Accordingly, when a similar model was estimated using a 25% cutoff for the refugee variable, the estimated coefficient was 1.67 (p < .001). The respective coefficient was 1.76 (p < .001) when a 75% cutoff point was used.

  7. Chi-square tests of the difference between the first-generation children of African and Hispanic black immigrants indicate that the disparity between the two is statistically significant (χ2  =  46.3, p < .001).

  8. Since Tables 1 and 2 show a higher prevalence of human capital and longer working hours among household heads relative to spouses, it is also reasonable to expect that the impacts of parental human capital on child poverty would work mainly through the characteristics of household heads.

References

  • Alba, R., & Nee, V. (1997). Rethinking assimilation theory for a new era of immigration. International Migration Review, 31, 826–874.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bashi, V., & McDaniel, A. (1997). A theory of immigration and racial stratification. Journal of Black Studies, 27, 668–682.

    Google Scholar 

  • Becker, G. S. (1962). Investment in human capital: A theoretical analysis. The Journal of Political Economy, 70, 9–49.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Becker, G. S. (1995). Human capital and poverty alleviation (Human Resources Development and Operations Working Paper 52). Washington, DC: The World Bank.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brandon, P. D. (2002). The living arrangements of children in immigrant families in the United States. International Migration Review, 36, 416–436.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Butcher, K. (1993). Black immigrants in the United States: A comparison with native blacks and other immigrants. Industrial & Labor Relations Review, 47, 265–284.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cameron, S. V., & Heckman, J. J. (2001). The dynamics of educational attainment for black, Hispanic, and white males. Journal of Political Economy, 109, 455–499.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Capps, R., Fix, M. E., Ost, J., Readon-Anderson, J., & Passel, J. S. (2005). The health and well-being of children of immigrants. Washington: The Urban Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cobb-Clark, D. A., & Hildebrand, V. A. (2006). The wealth and asset holdings of US-born and foreign-born households: Evidence from SIPP data. Review of Income and Wealth, 52, 17–42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Daneshvary, N., & Schwer, R. K. (1994). Black immigrants in the US labor market: An earnings analysis. The Review of Black Political Economy, 22(3), 77–98.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dixon, D. (2006). Characteristics of the African born in the United States. Migration Information Source. Retrieved from http://www.migrationinformation.org/issue_jan06.cfm

  • Dodoo, F. N. (1991). Earnings differences among blacks in America. Social Science Research, 20, 93–108.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dodoo, F. N. (1997). Assimilation differences among Africans in America. Social Forces, 76, 527–546.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duncan, G. J., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Klebanov, P. K. (1994). Economic deprivation and early childhood development. Child Development, 65, 296–318.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eggebeen, D. J., & Lichter, D. T. (1991). Race, family structure, and changing poverty among American children. American Sociological Review, 56, 801–817.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fass, S. (1986). Innovations in the struggle for reliance: The Hmong experience in the United States. International Migration Review, 20, 351–380.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gelatt, J., & Dixon, D. (2006). Detailed characteristics of the Caribbean population in the United States. Migration Information Source. Retrieved from http://www.migrationinformation.org/issue_jul06.cfm

  • Grieco, E. (2004). The African foreign born in the United States. Migration Information Source. Retrieved from http://www.migrationinformation.org/issue_sep04.cfm

  • Guo, G. (1998). The timing of the influences of cumulative poverty on children’s cognitive ability and achievement. Social Forces, 77, 257–287.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hernandez, D. J. (Ed.). (1999). Children of immigrants: Health, adjustment, and public assistance. (Report from the Committee on Health and Adjustment of Immigrant Children and Families, Board on Children, Youth and Families). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hernandez, D. J., & Charney, E. (1998). From generation to generation: The health and well-being of children in immigrant families. Board on children, youth and families. Washington: National Academy Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hernandez, D. J., & Darke, K. (1999). Socioeconomic and demographic risk factors and resources among children in immigrants and native-born families: 1910, 1960, and 1990. In D. J. Hernandez (Ed.), Children of immigrants: Health, adjustment, and public assistance (Report from the Committee on Health and Adjustment of Immigrant Children and Families, Board on Children, Youth and Families). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jarrett, R. L., & Burton, L. M. (1999). Dynamic dimensions of family structure in low-income African American families: Emergent themes in qualitative research. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 30, 177–187.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kalmijn, M. (1995). The socioeconomic assimilation of Caribbean blacks. Social Forces, 74, 911–930.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kasinitz, P., & Vickerman, M. (2001). Ethnic niches and racial traps: Jamaicans in the New York regional economy. In H. Codero-Guzman, R. Smith, & R. Grosfoguel (Eds.), Migration, transnationalization, and race in a changing New York. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kent, M. M. (2007). Immigration and America’s black population. Population Bulletin, 62(4), 1–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kossoudji, S. A. (1988). English language ability and the labor market opportunities of Hispanic and East Asian immigrant men. Journal of Labor Economics, 6, 205–228.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kulwicki, A., & Rice, V. H. (2003). Arab American adolescent perception and experiences with smoking. Public Health Nursing, 20, 177–183.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kurien, P. A. (2005). Being young, brown, and Hindu: The identity struggles of second generation Indian Americans. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 34, 439–469.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, J., & Bean, F. (2004). Americas changing color lines: Immigration, race/ethnicity, and multiracial identification. Annual Review of Sociology, 30, 221–242.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lerman, R. I. (1996). The impact of the changing US family structure on child poverty and income inequality. Economica, 63, S119–S139.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lichter, D. T. (1997). Poverty and inequality among children. Annual Review of Sociology, 23, 121–145.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lichter, D. T., & Eggebeen, D. J. (1994). The effect of parental employment on child poverty. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 56, 633–646.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lichter, D. T., & Landale, N. S. (1995). Parental work, family structure, and poverty among Latino children. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 57, 346–354.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lichter, D. T., Qain, Z., & Crowley, M. L. (2005). Child poverty among racial minorities and immigrants: Explaining trends and differentials. Social Science Quarterly, 86, 1037–1059.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Logan, J. R., Alba, R. D., & Stults, B. J. (2003). Enclaves and entrepreneurs: Assessing the payoff for immigrants and minorities. International Migration Review, 37, 344–388.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Logan, J. R., & Deanne, G. (2003). Black diversity in metropolitan America. Albany: Lewis Mumford Center for Comparative Urban and Regional Research, University of Albany.

    Google Scholar 

  • Massey, D. S., Mooney, M., Torres, K. C., & Charles, C. Z. (2007). Black immigrants and black natives attending selective colleges and universities in the United States. American Journal of Education, 113, 243–273.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McLanahan, S., & Schwartz, D. (2002). Life without father: What happens to the children? Contexts, 1, 35–44.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Model, S. (1991). Caribbean immigrants: A black success story? International Migration Review, 25, 248–276.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ogbu, J. U. (1983). Minority status and schooling in plural societies. Comparative Education Review, 27, 168–190.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ogbu, J. U. (1990). Minority education in comparative perspective. The Journal of Negro Education, 59, 45–57.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oropesa, R. S., & Landale, N. S. (1997). Immigrant legacies: Ethnicity, generation, and children’s familial and economic lives. Social Science Quarterly, 78, 399–416.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oropesa, R. S., & Landale, N. S. (2000). From austerity to prosperity? Migration and child poverty among mainland and island Puerto Ricans. Demography, 37, 323–338.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parcel, T. L., & Dufur, M. (2001). Capital at home and at school: Effects on child social adjustment. Journal of Marriage and Family, 63, 32–47.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Portes, A., & Zhou, M. (1993). A new second generation: Segmented assimilation and its variants. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 530, 74–96.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ramey, C. T., & Campbell, F. A. (1991). Poverty, early childhood education, and academic competence: The Abecedarian experiment. In A. C. Huston (Ed.), Children in poverty: Child development and public policy (pp. 190–221). Port Chester: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rocha, C. J. (1997). Factors that contribute to economic well-being in female-headed households. Journal of Social Service Research, 23, 1–17.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rong, X. L., & Brown, F. (2001). The effects of immigrant generation and ethnicity on educational attainment among young African and Caribbean blacks in the United States. Harvard Educational Review, 71, 536–565.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rumbaut, R. (1994). The crucible within: Ethnicity, self-esteem, and segmented assimilation among children of immigrants. International Migration Review, 28, 748–794.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rumbaut, R. (1995). Immigrants from Latin-America and the Caribbean: A socioeconomic profile (Statistical Brief No. 6). East Lansing, MI: Julian Samora Research Institute, Michigan State University.

  • Shields, M. K., & Behrman, R. E. (2004). Children of immigrant families: Analysis and recommendations. The Future of Children, 14(1), 4–15.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Snyder, A. R., & McLaughlin, D. K. (2004). Female-headed families and poverty in rural America. Rural Sociology, 69, 127–149.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sowell, T. (1981). Markets and minorities. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sowell, T. (1983). The economics and politics of race: An international perspective. New York: William Morrow.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stepick, A., & Portes, A. (1986). Flight into despair: A profile of recent Haitian refugees in south Florida. International Migration Review, 20, 329–350.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stolzenberg, R. M., & Tienda, M. (1997). English proficiency, education, and the conditional economic assimilation of Hispanic and Asian origin men. Social Science Research, 26, 25–51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tang, E. (2000). Collateral damage: Southeast Asian poverty in the United States. Social Text, 18(1), 55–79.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tolnay, S. E. (2004). The living arrangements of African American and immigrant children: 1880–2000. Journal of Family History, 29, 421–455.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Department of Homeland Security. (2006). Yearbook of immigration statistics: 2004. Washington: U.S. Department of Homeland Security, Office of Immigration Statistics.

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service. (1997). Statistical yearbook of the Immigration and Naturalization Service, 1996. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office.

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service. (1998). Statistical yearbook of the Immigration and Naturalization Service, 1997. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office.

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service. (1999). Statistical yearbook of the US Immigration and Naturalization Service, 1998. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office.

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service. (2000). Statistical yearbook of the US Immigration and Naturalization Service, 1999. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office.

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service. (2001). Statistical yearbook of the US Immigration and Naturalization Service, 2000. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Hook, J., Brown, S., & Kwenda, M. N. (2004). A decomposition of trends in poverty among children of immigrants. Demography, 41, 649–670.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Waters, M. (1994). Ethnic and racial identities of black Caribbean immigrants in New York City. International Migration Review, 28, 795–820.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Waters, M. (2001). Black identities: West Indian immigrant dreams and American realities. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zavodny, M. (2003). Race, wages, and assimilation among Cubans. Population Research and Policy Review, 22, 201–219.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhou, M. (1993). Underemployment and economic disparities among minority groups. Population Research and Policy Review, 12, 139–157.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhou, M. (1997). Segmented assimilation: Issues, controversies, and recent research on the new second generation. International Migration Review, 31, 975–1008.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This project was supported with a grant from the U.K. Center for Poverty Research through the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation, Grant No. 2 U01 PE000002-07. The opinions and conclusions expressed herein are solely those of the author and should not be construed as representing the opinions and policies of the UKCPR or any agency of the Federal government.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Kevin J. A. Thomas.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Thomas, K.J.A. Familial Influences on Poverty Among Young Children in Black Immigrant, U.S.-born Black, and Nonblack Immigrant Families. Demography 48, 437–460 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-011-0018-3

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-011-0018-3

Keywords

Navigation