Abstract
We investigated fluctuating asymmetry in 13 traits of the skulls and jaws of historical and contemporary populations of Scandinavian gray wolves (Canis lupus). We hypothesized that there is a higher level of fluctuating asymmetry in the inbred contemporary population than in the historical population. Our analyses did not detect any difference in the level of fluctuating asymmetry as predicted. We propose different explanation for this lack of change in fluctuating asymmetry. It is assumed that a large number of studies have failed to find a positive correlation between the level of genetic stress and developmental instability and have therefore never been published, which hampers a good understanding of fluctuating asymmetry as an indicator of developmental instability. The current study is thus important in this context. The gray wolf population in Scandinavia is characterized by an extreme bottleneck followed by two and a half decades of strong inbreeding, but no associated change in fluctuating asymmetry is detected.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Bechshøft TØ, Wiig Ø, Sonne C, Rigét FF, Dietz R, Letcher RJ, Muir DCG (2008a) Temporal and spatial variation in metric asymmetry in skulls of polar bears (Ursus maritimus) from East Greenland and Barents Sea. Ann Zool Fenn 45:15–31
Bechshøft TØ, Rigét FF, Wiig Ø, Sonne C (2008b) Fluctuating asymmetry in metric traits: a practical example of calculating asymmetry, measurement error, and repeatability. Ann Zool Fenn 45:32–38
Bensch S, Andrén H, Hansson B, Pedersen HC, Sand H, Sejberg D, Wabakken P, Åkeson M, Liberg O (2006) Selection for heterozygosity gives hope to a wild population of inbred wolves. PLoS ONE 1:e72
Clarke GM (1998) The genetic basis of developmental stability. V. Inter- and intra-individual character variation. Heredity 80:553–561
Flagstad Ø, Walker CW, Vilà C, Sundqvis A-K, Fernholm B, Hufthammer AK, Wiig Ø, Koyola I, Ellegren H (2003) Two centuries of the Scandinavian wolf population: patterns of genetic variability and migration during an era of dramatic decline. Mol Ecol 12:869–880
Gibson PS, Ballard WB, Nowak RM, Mech LD (2000) Accuracy and precision of estimating age of gray wolves by tooth wear. J Wildl Manag 64:752–758
Hagenblad J, Olsson M, Parker HG, Ostrander EA, Ellegren H (2009) Population genomics of the inbred Scandinavian wolf. Mol Ecol 18:1341–1351
Hoelzel AR, Fleischer RC, Campagna C, Le Boeuf BJ, Alvord G (2002) Impact of a population bottleneck on symmetry and genetic diversity in the northern elephant seal. J Evol Biol 15:567–575
Lacy RC, Alaks G (2013) Effects on inbreeding on skeletal size and fluctuating asymmetry of Peromyscus polionotus mice. Zoo Biol 32:125–133
Landon DB, Waite CA, Peterson RO, Mech LD (1998) Evaluation of age determination techniques for gray wolves. J Wildl Manag 62:674–682
Leamy LJ, Meagher S, Taylor S, Carrol P, Potts WK (2001) Size and fluctuating asymmetry of morphometric characters in mice: their associations with inbreeding and t-haplotype. Evolution 55:2333–2341
Leung B, Forbes MR (1997) Modelling fluctuating asymmetry in relation to stress and fitness. Oikos 78:397–405
Liberg O, Andrén H, Pedersen H-C, Sand H, Sejberg D, Wabakken P, Åkesson M, Bensch S (2005) Severe inbreeding depression in a wild wolf (Canis lupus) population. Biol Lett 1:17–20
Lovatt FM, Hoelzel AR (2011) The impact of population bottlenecks on fluctuating asymmetry and morphological variance in two separate populations of reindeer on the island of South Georgia. Biol J Linn Soc 102:798–811
Mattisson J, Sand H, Wabakken P, Gervasi V, Liberg O, Linnell JDC, Rauset GR, Pedersen HC (2013) Home range size variation in a recovering wolf population: evaluating the effect of environmental, demographic, and social factors. Oecologia 173:813–825
Nowak RM (2003) Wolf evolution and taxonomy. In: Mech LD, Boitani L (eds) Wolves. Behaviour, ecology, and conservation. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London, pp 239–259
Palmer AR (1994) Fluctuating asymmetry analyses: a primer. In: Markow TA (ed) Developmental instability: its origins and evolutionary implications. Kluwer, Dordrecht, pp 335–364
Palmer AR, Strobeck C (1986) Fluctuating asymmetry—measurement, analysis, patterns. Ann Rev Ecol Syst 17:391–421
Palmer AR, Strobeck C (2003a) Fluctuating asymmetry analyses revisited. In: Polak M (ed) Developmental instability. Causes and consequences. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 279–319
Palmer AR, Strobeck C (2003b) Fluctuating asymmetry analysis: a step-by-step example. From: electronic Appendix V in: fluctuating asymmetry analyses revisited. In: Polak M (ed) Developmental instability. Causes and consequences. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 279–319
Pertoldi C, Loeschcke V, Madsen AB, Randi E (1997) Developmental stability in the Eurasian otter (Luta lutra) in Denmark. Ann Zool Fenn 34:187–196
Pertoldi C, Loeschcke V, Braun A, Madsen AB, Randi E (2000) Craniometrical variability and developmental stability. Two useful tools for assessing the population viability of Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra) populations in Europe. Biol J Linn Soc 70:309–323
Pertoldi C, Kristensen TN, Andersen DH, Loeschcke V (2006) Developmental instability as an estimator of genetic stress. Heredity 96:122–127
Peters G (1993) Canis lupus Linnaeus, 1758 – Wolf. In Hanbuch der Säugetiere Europas. Band 5: Raubsãuger – Carnivora (Fissipedia) Teil I: Canidae, Ursidae, Procyonida, Mustelidae 1. AULA-Verlag, Wiesbaden, pp 47–106
Pulliainen E (1985) The expansion mechanism of the wolf (Canis lupus) in Northern Europe. Rev Ecol 40:157–162
Räikkönen J, Bignert A, Mortensen P, Fernholm B (2006) Congenital defects in a highly inbred wild wolf population (Canis lupus). Mamm Biol 71:65–73
Vilà C, Sundqvist A-K, Flagstad Ø, Seddon J, Björnfeldt S, Kojola I, Casulli A, Sand H, Wabakken P, Ellegren H (2003) Rescue of a severely bottlenecked wolf (Canis lupus) population by a single immigrant. Proc R Soc Lond B 270:91–97
Vøllestad LA, Hindar K, Mølle AP (1999) A meta-analysis of fluctuationg asymmetry in relation to heterozygosity. Heredity 83:206–218
von den Driesch, A. 1976. A guide to the measurement of animal bones from archaeological sites. Harvard University, Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Peabody Museum Bulletin 1, pp148
Wabakken P, Sand H, Liberg O, Bjärvall A (2001) The recovery, distribution and population dynamics of wolves on the Scandinavian peninsula, 1978-1998. Can J Zool 79:710–725
Wabakken P, Aronson Å, Strømseth TH, Sand H, Maartmann E, Svensson L, Flagstad Ø, Hedmark E, Liberg O and Kojola I (2011) The wolf in Scandinavia: Status report of the 2009–2010 winter. Høgskolen i Hedmark Oppdragsrapport nr. 4–2010, 57 pp
Wabakken P, Svensson L, Kojola I, Maartmann E, Strømseth TH, Flagstad Ø, Åkesson, M and Zetterberg A (2013) The wolf in Scandinavia: Final report from wolf monitoring in the 2012–2013 winter. Høgskolen i Hedmark Oppdragsrapport nr. 5–2013, 34 pp
Acknowledgments
We are very thankful to Nina J.V. Juliussen who made all the measurements, to Anne-Karin Hufthammer for access to wolf skulls at the Bergen Museum, and to Ulf Johansson, Olavi Grönwall and Peter Mortensen for access to wolf skulls at the Naturhistoriska riksmuseet, Stockholm. Comments from two anonymous referees improved the manuscript substantially.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Communicated by: Cino Pertoldi
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Wiig, Ø., Bachmann, L. Fluctuating asymmetry and inbreeding in Scandinavian gray wolves (Canis lupus). Acta Theriol 59, 399–405 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13364-014-0174-0
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13364-014-0174-0