Abstract
Mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs) show promising results in both clinical and non-clinical settings. A number of studies indicate that self-reported mindfulness is associated with adaptive psychological functioning and decreased symptom distress. However, there have been no systematic reviews of research on self-reported mindfulness as an outcome of MBIs for clinical and non-clinical samples. It is also unclear to what extent MBIs actually lead to increased and stable self-reported mindfulness. A systematic literature search was conducted to identify studies measuring self-reported mindfulness before and after an MBI. Meta-analytic procedures were used to investigate self-reported mindfulness as an outcome of MBIs. The results show that several questionnaires have been designed to measure mindfulness, and these have been applied to a variety of samples. Although methodological issues preclude definite conclusions, the meta-analysis indicates that MBIs increase self-reported mindfulness. Effect sizes indicate that increases are in the medium range (Hedges’ g = 0.53). However, over half of the studies found no significant effects of MBIs on self-reported mindfulness from pre- to post-intervention. Also, studies of MBIs against active control conditions show no significant advantage for MBIs in increasing self-reported mindfulness. This raises serious questions concerning the validity of the mindfulness questionnaires currently in use. The addition of a full or half day of intensive mindfulness training (retreats) as part of the intervention moderate the effect sizes in positive direction. Implications for future research include the need for analysis of statistical mediation as well as further validation of questionnaires. Comparisons of MBIs to established evidence-based interventions as active control conditions are also called for.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
*Study was included in the meta-analysis
*Agee, J. D., Danoff-Burg, S., & Grant, C. A. (2009). Comparing brief stress management courses in a community sample: mindfulness skills and progressive muscle relaxation. Explore: The Journal of Science and Healing, 5(2), 104–109. doi:10.1016/j.explore.2008.12.004.
*Altmaier, E., & Maloney, R. (2007). An initial evaluation of a mindful parenting program. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 63(12), 1231–1238. doi:10.1002/jclp.20395.
*Anderson, N. D., Lau, M. A., Segal, Z. V., & Bishop, S. R. (2007). Mindfulness based stress reduction and attentional control. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 14(6), 449–463. doi:10.1002/cpp.544.
Arch, J. J., & Craske, M. G. (2010). Laboratory stressors in clinically anxious and non-anxious individuals: the moderating role of mindfulness. Behaviour research and therapy, 48(6), 495–505. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2010.02.005.
Baer, R. A. (2003). Mindfulness training as a clinical intervention: a conceptual and empirical review. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10(2), 125–143. doi:10.1093/clipsy/bpg015.
Baer, R. A. (2007). Mindfulness, assessment, and transdiagnostic processes. Psychological Inquiry, 18(4), 238–242. doi:10.1080/10478400701598306.
Baer, R. A. (2011). Measuring mindfulness. Contemporary Buddhism, 12(1), 241–261. doi:10.1080/14639947.2011.564842.
Baer, R. A., & Krietemeyer, J. (2006). Overview of mindfulness- and acceptance-based treatment approaches. In R. A. Baer (Ed.), Mindfulness-based treatment approaches: clinician’s guide to evidence base and applications. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Baer, R. A., Smith, G. T., & Allen, K. B. (2004). Assessment of mindfulness by self-report: the Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills. Assessment, 11(3), 191–206. doi:10.1177/1073191104268029.
Baer, R. A., Smith, G. T., Hopkins, J., Krietemeyer, J., & Toney, L. (2006). Using self-report assessment methods to explore facets of mindfulness. Assessment, 13(1), 27–45. doi:10.1177/1073191105283504.
Baer, R. A., Carmody, J., & Hunsinger, M. (2012). Weekly change in mindfulness and perceived stress in a mindfulness-based stress reduction program. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 68(7), 755–765. doi:10.1002/jclp.21865.
*Baum, C., Kuyken, W., Bohus, M., Heidenreich, T., Michalak, J., & Steil, R. (2010). The psychometric properties of the Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills in clinical populations. Assessment, 17(2), 220–229. doi:10.1177/1073191109356525.
Bieling, P. J., Hawley, L. L., Bloch, R. T., Corcoran, K. M., Levitan, R. D., Young, L. T., et al. (2012). Treatment-specific changes in decentering following mindfulness-based cognitive therapy versus antidepressant medication or placebo for prevention of depressive relapse. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 80(3), 365–372. doi:10.1037/a0027483.
*Birnie, K., Garland, S. N., & Carlson, L. E. (2010). Psychological benefits for cancer patients and their partners participating in mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR). Psycho Oncology, 19(9), 1004–1009. doi:10.1002/pon.1651.
Bishop, S. R., Lau, M., Shapiro, S., Carlson, L., Anderson, N. D., Carmody, J., et al. (2004). Mindfulness: a proposed operational definition. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 11(3), 230–241. doi:10.1093/clipsy/bph077.
*Bögels, S., Hoogstad, B., van Dun, L., de Schutter, S., & Restifo, K. (2008). Mindfulness training for adolescents with externalizing disorders and their parents. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 36(02), 193–209. doi:10.1017/S1352465808004190.
Borenstein, M., Hedges, L. V., Higgins, J. P. T., & Rothstein, H. R. (2009). Introduction to meta-analysis. West Sussex: Wiley.
Borenstein, M., Hedges, L. V., Higgins, J. P. T., & Rothstein, H. R. (2011). Comprehensive meta analysis (Version 2.2.064). Englewood: Biostat.
*Bowen, S., Chawla, N., Collins, S. E., Witkiewitz, K., Hsu, S., Grow, J., et al. (2009). Mindfulness-based relapse prevention for substance use disorders: a pilot efficacy trial. Substance Abuse, 30(4), 295–305. doi:10.1080/08897070903250084.
Bowen, S., Chawla, N., & Marlatt, G. A. (2011). Mindfulness-based relapse prevention for addictive behaviors: a clinician’s guide. London: Guilford.
*Bränström, R., Kvillemo, P., Brandberg, Y., & Moskowitz, J. T. (2010). Self-report mindfulness as a mediator of psychological well-being in a stress reduction intervention for cancer patients—a randomized study. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 39(2), 151–161. doi:10.1007/s12160-010-9168-6.
*Brewer, J. A., Sinha, R., Chen, J. A., Michalsen, R. N., Babuscio, T. A., Nich, C., et al. (2009). Mindfulness training and stress reactivity in substance abuse: results from a randomized, controlled stage I pilot study. Substance Abuse, 30(4), 306–317. doi:10.1080/08897070903250241.
Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2003). The benefits of being present: mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(4), 822–848. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.84.4.822.
Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2004). Perils and promise in defining and measuring mindfulness: observations from experience. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 11(3), 242–248. doi:10.1093/clipsy/bph078.
*Brown, K. W., West, A. M., Loverich, T. M., & Biegel, G. M. (2011). Assessing adolescent mindfulness: validation of an adapted Mindful Attention Awareness Scale in adolescent normative and psychiatric populations. Psychological Assessment. doi:10.1037/a0021338.
Buchheld, N., Grossman, P., & Walach, H. (2001). Measuring mindfulness in insight meditation (Vipassana) and meditation-based psychotherapy: the development of the Freiburg Mindfulness Inventory (FMI). Journal for Meditation and Meditation Research, 1(1), 11–34. Retrieved from http://www.psychosomatik-basel.ch/deutsch/publikationen/pdf/grossman_measuring_mindfulness_2001.pdf.
*Carmody, J., & Baer, R. A. (2008). Relationships between mindfulness practice and levels of mindfulness, medical and psychological symptoms and well-being in a mindfulness-based stress reduction program. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 31(1), 23–33. doi:10.1007/s10865-007-9130-7.
*Carmody, J., Crawford, S., & Churchill, L. (2006). A pilot study of mindfulness-based stress reduction for hot flashes. Menopause, 13(5), 760–769. doi:10.1097/01.gme.0000227402.98933.d0.
*Carmody, J., Reed, G., Kristeller, J., & Merriam, P. (2008). Mindfulness, spirituality, and health-related symptoms. Journal of Psychosomatic research, 64(4), 393–403. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2007.06.015.
*Carmody, J., Baer, R. A., Lykins, L. B., & Olendzki, N. (2009). An empirical study of the mechanisms of mindfulness in a mindfulness-based stress reduction program. Journal of clinical psychology, 65(6), 613–626. doi:10.1002/jclp.20579.
Chadwick, P., Barnbrook, E., & Newman-Taylor, K. (2007). Responding mindfully to distressing voices: links with meaning, affect and relationship with voice. Journal of the Norwegian Psychological Association, 44, 581–588. Retrieved from http://www.psykologtidsskriftet.no/index.php?seks_id=19102&a=2.
Chadwick, P., Hember, M., Symes, J., Peters, E., Kuipers, E., & Dagnan, D. (2008). Responding mindfully to unpleasant thoughts and images: reliability and validity of the Southampton Mindfulness Questionnaire (SMQ). British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 47(4), 451–455. doi:10.1348/014466508X3114891.
*Chadwick, P., Hughes, S., Russell, D., Russell, I., & Dagnan, D. (2009). Mindfulness groups for distressing voices and paranoia: a replication and randomized feasibility trial. Behav Cogn Psychother, 37(4), 403–412. doi:10.1017/S1352465809990166.
Chiesa, A., & Malinowski, P. (2011). Mindfulness-based approaches: are they all the same? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 67(4), 1–21. doi:10.1002/jclp.20776.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
*Cohen-Katz, J., Wiley, S. D., Capuano, T., Baker, D. M., & Shapiro, S. (2005). The effects of mindfulness-based stress reduction on nurse stress and burnout, part II: a quantitative and qualitative study. Holistic Nursing Practice, 19(1), 26–35. Retrieved from http://journals.lww.com/hnpjournal/Abstract/2005/01000/The_Effects_of_Mindfulness_based_Stress_Reduction.8.aspx.
*Collard, P., Avny, N., & Boniwell, I. (2008). Teaching mindfulness based cognitive therapy (MBCT) to students: the effects of MBCT on the levels of mindfulness and subjective well-being. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 21(4), 323–336. doi:10.1080/09515070802602112.
*Cusens, B., Duggan, G. B., Thorne, K., & Burch, V. (2010). Evaluation of the breathworks mindfulness based pain management programme: effects on well being and multiple measures of mindfulness. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 17(1), 63–78. doi:10.1002/cpp.653.
*Dalen, J., Smith, B. W., Shelley, B. M., Sloan, A. L., Leahigh, L., & Begay, D. (2010). Pilot study: Mindful Eating and Living (MEAL): weight, eating behavior, and psychological outcomes associated with a mindfulness-based intervention for people with obesity. Complementary Therapies in Medicine, 18(6), 260–264. doi:10.1016/j.ctim.2010.09.008.
*Deyo, M., Wilson, K. A., Ong, J., & Koopman, C. (2009). Mindfulness and rumination: does mindfulness training lead to reductions in the ruminative thinking associated with depression? Explore: The Journal of Science and Healing, 5(5), 265–271. doi:10.1016/j.explore.2009.06.005.
*Dobkin, P. L. (2008). Mindfulness-based stress reduction: what processes are at work? Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice, 14(1), 8–16. doi:10.1016/j.ctcp.2007.09.004.
*Duncan, L. G., & Bardacke, N. (2010). Mindfulness-based childbirth and parenting education: promoting family mindfulness during the perinatal period. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 19(2), 190–202. doi:10.1007/s10826-009-9313-7.
Eberth, J., & Sedlmeier, P. (2012). The effects of mindfulness meditation: a meta-analysis. Mindfulness, 3, 174–189. doi:10.1007/s12671-012-0101-x.
*Eisendrath, S. J., Delucchi, K., Bitner, R., Fenimore, P., Smit, M., & McLane, M. (2008). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for treatment-resistant depression: a pilot study. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 77(5), 319–320. doi:10.1159/000142525.
*Evans, S., Ferrando, S., Findler, M., Stowell, C., Smart, C., & Haglin, D. (2008). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for generalized anxiety disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 22(4), 716–721. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2007.07.005.
*Evans, S., Ferrando, S., Carr, C., & Haglin, D. (2010). Mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) and distress in a community based sample. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy. doi:10.1002/cpp.727. Advance online publication.
Feldman, G., Hayes, A., Kumar, S., Greeson, J., & Laurenceau, J. P. (2007). Mindfulness and emotion regulation: the development and initial validation of the Cognitive and Affective Mindfulness Scale-Revised (CAMS-R). Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 29(3), 177–190. doi:10.1007/s10862-006-9035-8.
Fennell, M., & Segal, Z. (2011). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy: culture clash or creative fusion? Contemporary Buddhism, 12(1), 125–142. doi:10.1080/14639947.2011.564828.
*Foley, E., Baillie, A., Huxter, M., Price, M., & Sinclair, E. (2010). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for individuals whose lives have been affected by cancer: a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 78(1), 72. doi:10.1037/a0017566.
Fresco, D. M., Moore, M. T., van Dulmen, M. H. M., Segal, Z. V., Ma, S. H., Teasdale, J. D., et al. (2007). Initial psychometric properties of the experiences questionnaire: validation of a self-report measure of decentering. Behavior Therapy, 38(3), 234–246. doi:10.1016/j.beth.2006.08.003.
*Frewen, P. A., Evans, E. M., Maraj, N., Dozois, D. J. A., & Partridge, K. (2008). Letting go: mindfulness and negative automatic thinking. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 32(6), 758–774. doi:10.1007/s10608-007-9142-1.
Garland, E., & Gaylord, S. (2009). Envisioning a future contemplative science of mindfulness: fruitful methods and new content for the next wave of research. Complementary Health Practice Review, 14(1), 3–9. doi:10.1177/1533210109333718.
*Garland, E. L., Gaylord, S. A., Boettiger, C. A., & Howard, M. O. (2010). Mindfulness training modifies cognitive, affective, and physiological mechanisms implicated in alcohol dependence: results of a randomized controlled pilot trial. Journal of psychoactive drugs, 42(2), 177–192. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2921532/.
Gilbert, B. D., & Christopher, M. S. (2010). Mindfulness-based attention as a moderator of the relationship between depressive affect and negative cognitions. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 34(6), 514–521. doi:10.1007/s10608-009-9282-6.
Gilpin, R. (2008). The use of Theravāda Buddhist practices and perspectives in mindfulness-based cognitive therapy. Contemporary Buddhism, 9(2), 227–251. doi:10.1080/14639940802556560.
*Gökhan, N., Meehan, E. F., & Peters, K. (2010). The value of mindfulness-based methods in teaching at a clinical field placement. Psychological Reports, 106(2), 455–466. doi:10.2466/PR0.106.2.455-466.
*Gross, C., Kreitzer, M., Thomas, W., Reilly-Spong, M., Cramer-Bornemann, M., Nyman, J., et al. (2010). Mindfulness-based stress reduction for solid organ transplant recipients: a randomized controlled trial. Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine, 16(5), 30–38. Retrieved from http://www.proquest.com.
Grossman, P., & Van Dam, N. T. (2011). Mindfulness, by any other name…: trials and tribulations of sati in western psychology and science. Contemporary Buddhism, 12(01), 219–239. doi:10.1080/14639947.2011.564841.
Hayes, S. C. (2004). Acceptance and commitment therapy, relational frame theory, and the third wave of behavioral and cognitive therapies. Behavior Therapy, 4(35), 639–665. doi:10.1016/s0005-7894(04)80013-3.
Hedges, L. V., & Olkin, I. (1985). Statistical methods for meta-analysis. Orlando: Academic.
Higgins, J., Thompson, S. G., Deeks, J. J., & Altman, D. G. (2003). Measuring inconsistency in meta-analyses. British Medical Journal, 327(7414), 557–560. doi:10.1136/bmj.327.7414.557.
Hofmann, S. G., Sawyer, A. T., Witt, A. A., & Oh, D. (2010). The effect of mindfulness-based therapy on anxiety and depression: a meta-analytic review. Journal of consulting and clinical psychology, 78(2), 169. doi:10.1037/a0018555.
*Hölzel, B. K., Carmody, J., Vangel, M., Congleton, C., Yerramsetti, S. M., Gard, T., et al. (2011). Mindfulness practice leads to increases in regional brain gray matter density. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 191(1), 36–43. doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2010.08.006.
*Huppert, F. A., & Johnson, D. M. (2010). A controlled trial of mindfulness training in schools: the importance of practice for an impact on well-being. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 5(4), 264–274. doi:10.1080/17439761003794148.
Kabat-Zinn, J. (1990). Full catastrophe living. How to cope with stress, pain and illness using mindfulness meditation. Wiltshire: Antony Rowe.
Kabat-Zinn, J. (2003). Mindfulness-based interventions in context: past, present, and future. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10(2), 144–156. doi:10.1093/clipsy.bpg016.
*Kaufman, K. A., Glass, C. R., & Arnkoff, D. B. (2009). Evaluation of mindful sport performance enhancement (MSPE): a new approach to promote flow in athletes. Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 3(4), 334–356.
Kazdin, A. E. (2003). Research design in clinical psychology (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Keng, S.-L., Smoski, M. J., & Robins, C. J. (2011). Effects of mindfulness on psychological health: a review of empirical studies. Clinical Psychology Review, 31(6), 1041–1056. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2011.04.006.
*Kimbrough, E., Magyari, T., Langenberg, P., Chesney, M., & Berman, B. (2010). Mindfulness intervention for child abuse survivors. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 66(1), 17–33. doi:10.1002/jclp.20624.
*Kingston, J., Chadwick, P., Meron, D., & Skinner, T. C. (2007). A pilot randomized control trial investigating the effect of mindfulness practice on pain tolerance, psychological well-being, and physiological activity. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 62(3), 297–300. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2006.10.007.
*Klatt, M. D., Buckworth, J., & Malarkey, W. B. (2009). Effects of low-dose mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR-ld) on working adults. Health Education & Behavior, 36(3), 601–614. doi:10.1177/1090198108317627.
*Kocovski, N. L., Fleming, J. E., & Rector, N. A. (2009). Mindfulness and acceptance-based group therapy for social anxiety disorder: an open trial. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 16(3), 276–289. doi:10.1016/j.cbpra.2008.12.004.
Kraemer, H. C., Wilson, G. T., Fairburn, C. G., & Agras, W. S. (2002). Mediators and moderators of treatment effects in randomized clinical trials. Archives of General Psychiatry, 59(10), 877–883. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.59.10.877.
*Krasner, M. S., Epstein, R. M., Beckman, H., Suchman, A. L., Chapman, B., Mooney, C. J., et al. (2009). Association of an educational program in mindful communication with burnout, empathy, and attitudes among primary care physicians. JAMA: the journal of the American Medical Association, 302(12), 1284. doi:10.1001/jama.2009.1384.
Kuyken, W., Watkins, E., Holden, E., White, K., Taylor, R. S., Byford, S., et al. (2010). How does mindfulness-based cognitive therapy work? Behaviour Research and Therapy, 48(11), 1105–1112. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2010.08.003.
*Labelle, L., Campbell, T., & Carlson, L. (2010). Mindfulness-based stress reduction in oncology: evaluating mindfulness and rumination as mediators of change in depressive symptoms. Mindfulness, 1(1), 28–40. doi:10.1007/s12671-010-0005-6.
*Lau, M. A., Bishop, S. R., Segal, Z. V., Buis, T., Anderson, N. D., Carlson, L., et al. (2006). The Toronto Mindfulness Scale: development and validation. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 62(12), 1445–1468. doi:10.1002/jclp.20326.
Lavender, J. M., Jardin, B. F., & Anderson, D. A. (2009). Bulimic symptoms in undergraduate men and women: contributions of mindfulness and thought suppression. Eating Behaviors, 10(4), 228–231. doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2009.07.002.
Linehan, M. M., & Dexter-Mazza, E. T. (2008). Dialectical behavior therapy for borderline personality disorder. In D. H. Barlow (Ed.), Clinical handbook of psychological disorders, fourth edition: a step-by-step treatment manual. New York: Guilford.
*Lovas, D. A., & Barsky, A. J. (2010). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for hypochondriasis, or severe health anxiety: a pilot study. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 24(8), 931–935. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2010.06.019.
*Matchim, Y., Armer, J. M., & Stewart, B. R. (2010). Effects of mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) on health among breast cancer survivors. Western Journal of Nursing Research, 33(8), 1–21. doi:10.1177/0193945910385363. Advance online publication.
*Matousek, R. H., & Dobkin, P. L. (2010). Weathering storms: a cohort study of how participation in a mindfulness-based stress reduction program benefits women after breast cancer treatment. Current Oncology, 17(4), 62–70. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2913832.
McCracken, L., & Thompson, M. (2009). Components of mindfulness in patients with chronic pain. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 31(2), 75–82. doi:10.1007/s10862-008-9099-8.
*Michalak, J., Heidenreich, T., Meibert, P., & Schulte, D. (2008). Mindfulness predicts relapse/recurrence in major depressive disorder after mindfulness-based cognitive therapy. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 196(8), 630–633. doi:10.1097/NMD.0b013e31817d0546.
*Morone, N. E., Rollman, B. L., Moore, C. G., Qin, L., & Weiner, D. K. (2009). A mind–body program for older adults with chronic low back pain: results of a pilot study. Pain medicine, 10(8), 1395–1407. doi:10.1111/j.1526-4637.2009.00746.x.
*Mularski, R. A., Munjas, B. A., Lorenz, K. A., Sun, S., Robertson, S. J., Schmelzer, W., et al. (2009). Randomized controlled trial of mindfulness-based therapy for dyspnea in chronic obstructive lung disease. The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 15(10), 1083–1090. doi:10.1089/acm.2009.0037.
Neff, K. D. (2003). The development and validation of a scale to measure self-compassion. Self and Identity, 2(3), 223–250. doi:10.1080/15298860309027.
*Nyklíček, I., & Kuijpers, K. F. (2008). Effects of mindfulness-based stress reduction intervention on psychological well-being and quality of life: is increased mindfulness indeed the mechanism? Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 35(3), 331–340. doi:10.1007/s12160-008-9030-2.
*Oken, B. S., Fonareva, I., Haas, M., Wahbeh, H., Lane, J. B., Zajdel, D., et al. (2010). Pilot controlled trial of mindfulness meditation and education for dementia caregivers. The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 16(10), 1031–1038. doi:10.1089/acm.2009.0733.
*Ong, J. C., Shapiro, S. L., & Manber, R. (2008). Combining mindfulness meditation with cognitive-behavior therapy for insomnia: a treatment-development study. Behavior Therapy, 39(2), 171–182. doi:10.1016/j.beth.2007.07.002.
*Ong, J. C., Shapiro, S. L., & Manber, R. (2009). Mindfulness meditation and cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia: a naturalistic 12-month follow-up. Explore: The Journal of Science and Healing, 5(1), 30–36. doi:10.1016/j.explore.2008.10.004.
*Ortner, C. N. M., Kilner, S. J., & Zelazo, P. D. (2007). Mindfulness meditation and reduced emotional interference on a cognitive task. Motivation and Emotion, 31(4), 271–283. doi:10.1007/s11031-007-9076-7.
*Pradhan, E. K., Baumgarten, M., Langenberg, P., Handwerger, B., Gilpin, A. K., Magyari, T., et al. (2007). Effect of mindfulness-based stress reduction in rheumatoid arthritis patients. Arthritis Care & Research, 57(7), 1134–1142. doi:10.1002/art.23010.
*Raes, F., Dewulf, D., Van Heeringen, C., & Williams, J. M. G. (2009). Mindfulness and reduced cognitive reactivity to sad mood: evidence from a correlational study and a non-randomized waiting list controlled study. Behaviour research and therapy, 47(7), 623–627. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2009.03.007.
Rapgay, L., & Bystrisky, A. (2009). Classical mindfulness. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1172(1), 148–162. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04405.x.
Rasmussen, M. K., & Pidgeon, A. M. (2010). The direct and indirect benefits of dispositional mindfulness on self-esteem and social anxiety. Anxiety, Stress & Coping, 24(2), 227–233. doi:10.1080/10615806.2010.515681.
*Ree, M. J., & Craigie, M. A. (2007). Outcomes following mindfulness-based cognitive therapy in a heterogeneous sample of adult outpatients. Behaviour Change, 24(2), 70–86. doi:10.1375/bech.24.2.70.
*Rimes, K. A., & Wingrove, J. (2011). Pilot study of mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for trainee clinical psychologists. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 39(02), 235–241. doi:10.1017/S1352465810000731.
*Sachse, S., Keville, S., & Feigenbaum, J. (2010). A feasibility study of mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for individuals with borderline personality disorder. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 84(2), 1–17. doi:10.1348/147608310X516387.
Sanders, W. A., & Lam, D. H. (2010). Ruminative and mindful self-focused processing modes and their impact on problem solving in dysphoric individuals. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 48(8), 747–753. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2010.04.007.
Sauer, S., Walach, H., Schmidt, S., Hinterberger, T., Lynch, S., Büssing, A., et al. (2013). Assessment of mindfulness: review on state of the art. Mindfulness, 4(1), 3–17. doi:10.1007/s12671-012-0122-5.
*Schmidt, S., Grossman, P., Schwarzer, B., Jena, S., Naumann, J., & Walach, H. (2010). Treating fibromyalgia with mindfulness-based stress reduction: results from a 3-armed randomized controlled trial. Pain, 152(2), 361–369. doi:10.1016/j.pain.2010.10.043.
*Schroevers, M. J., & Brandsma, R. (2010). Is learning mindfulness associated with improved affect after mindfulness-based cognitive therapy? British Journal of Psychology, 101(1), 95–107. doi:10.1348/000712609X424195.
Schulze, R. (2004). Meta-analysis: a comparison of approaches. Cambridge: Hogrefe.
Schütze, R., Rees, C., Preece, M., & Schütze, M. (2010). Low mindfulness predicts pain catastrophizing in a fear-avoidance model of chronic pain. Pain, 148(1), 120–127. doi:10.1016/j.pain.2009.10.030.
Segal, Z. V., Williams, J. M. G., & Teasdale, J. D. (2002). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression: a new approach to preventing relapse. New York: Guilford.
Segal, Z. V., Teasdale, J. D., & Williams, J. M. G. (2004). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy: Theoretical rationale and empirical status. In S. C. Hayes, V. M. Follette, & M. M. Linehan (Eds.), Mindfulness and acceptance. Expanding the cognitive-behavioral tradition. London: Guilford.
Segal, Z. V., Williams, J. M. G., & Teasdale, J. D. (2013). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression (2nd ed.). London: Guilford.
*Shahar, B., Britton, W. B., Sbarra, D. A., Figueredo, A. J., & Bootzin, R. R. (2010). Mechanisms of change in mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression: preliminary evidence from a randomized controlled trial. International Journal of Cognitive Therapy, 3(4), 402–418. doi:10.1521/ijct.2010.3.4.402.
Shapiro, S. L., & Carlson, L. E. (2009). The art and science of mindfulness: integrating mindfulness into psychology and the helping professions. Washington: American Psychological Association.
*Shapiro, S. L., Brown, K. W., & Biegel, G. M. (2007). Teaching self-care to caregivers: effects of mindfulness-based stress reduction on the mental health of therapists in training. Training and Education in Professional Psychology, 1(2), 105–115. doi:10.1037/1931-3918.1.2.105.
*Shapiro, S. L., Oman, D., Thoresen, C. E., Plante, T. G., & Flinders, T. (2008). Cultivating mindfulness: effects on well-being. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 64(7), 840–862. doi:10.1002/jclp.20491.
*Shapiro, S. L., Brown, K. W., Thoresen, C., & Plante, T. G. (2011). The moderation of mindfulness-based stress reduction effects by trait mindfulness: results from a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 67(3), 267–277. doi:10.1002/jclp.20761.
*Sharplin, G. R., Jones, S. B. W., Hancock, B., Knott, V. E., Bowden, J. A., & Whitford, H. S. (2010). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy: an efficacious community-based group intervention for depression and anxiety in a sample of cancer patients. The Medical Journal of Australia, 193(5), S79–S82. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/2440/62118.
*Smith, B. W., Shelley, B. M., Leahigh, L., & Vanleit, B. (2006). A preliminary study of the effects of a modified mindfulness intervention on binge eating. Complementary Health Practice Review, 11(3), 133–143. doi:10.1177/1533210106297217.
*Smith, B. W., Shelley, B. M., Dalen, J., Wiggins, K., Tooley, E., & Bernard, J. (2008). A pilot study comparing the effects of mindfulness-based and cognitive-behavioral stress reduction. The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 14(3), 251–258. doi:10.1089/acm.2007.0641.
*Splevins, K., Smith, A., & Simpson, J. (2009). Do improvements in emotional distress correlate with becoming more mindful? A study of older adults. Aging & Mental Health, 13(3), 328–335. doi:10.1080/13607860802459807.
Sterne, J. A. C., Sutton, A. J., Ioannidis, J., Terrin, N., Jones, D. R., Lau, J., et al. (2011). Recommendations for examining and interpreting funnel plot asymmetry in meta-analyses of randomised controlled trials. BMJ, 343, 1–8. doi:10.1136/bmj.d4002.
Teasdale, J. D., Segal, Z. V., Williams, J. M. G., Ridgeway, V. A., Soulsby, J. M., & Lau, M. A. (2000). Prevention of relapse/recurrence in major depression by mindfulness-based cognitive therapy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68(4), 615–623. doi:10.1037/0022-006x.68.4.615.
Thalheimer, W., & Cook, S. (2002). How to calculate effect sizes from published research: a simplified methodology. Retrieved from www.work-learning.com .
Van Dam, N. T., Sheppard, S. C., Forsyth, J. P., & Earleywine, M. (2010). Self-compassion is a better predictor than mindfulness of symptom severity and quality of life in mixed anxiety and depression. Journal of anxiety disorders. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2010.08.011.
*Vieten, C., & Astin, J. (2008). Effects of a mindfulness-based intervention during pregnancy on prenatal stress and mood: results of a pilot study. Archives of Women's Mental Health, 11(1), 67–74. doi:10.1007/s00737-008-0214-3.
*Vieten, C., Astin, J. A., Buscemi, R., & Galloway, G. P. (2010). Development of an acceptance-based coping intervention for alcohol dependence relapse prevention. Substance Abuse, 31(2), 108–116. doi:10.1080/08897071003641594.
*Vøllestad, J., Sivertsen, B., & Nielsen, G. H. (2011). Mindfulness-based stress reduction for patients with anxiety disorders: evaluation in a randomized controlled trial. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 30(4), 281–288. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2011.01.007.
Walach, H., Buchheld, N., Buttenmüller, V., Kleinknecht, N., & Schmidt, S. (2006a). Measuring mindfulness—the Freiburg Mindfulness Inventory (FMI). Personality and Individual Differences, 40(8), 1543–1555. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2005.11.025.
Walach, H., Falkenberg, T., Fonnebo, V., Lewith, G., & Jonas, W. (2006b). Circular instead of hierarchical: methodological principles for the evaluation of complex interventions. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 6(1), 29. doi:10.1186/1471-2288-6-29.
*Weber, B., Jermann, F., Gex-Fabry, M., Nallet, A., Bondolfi, G., & Aubry, J. M. (2010). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for bipolar disorder: a feasibility trial. European Psychiatry, 25(6), 334–337. doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2010.03.007.
*Witek-Janusek, L., Albuquerque, K., Chroniak, K. R., Chroniak, C., Durazo-Arvizu, R., & Mathews, H. L. (2008). Effect of mindfulness based stress reduction on immune function, quality of life and coping in women newly diagnosed with early stage breast cancer. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 22(6), 969–981. doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2008.01.012.
*Zgierska, A., Rabago, D., Zuelsdorff, M., Coe, C., Miller, M., & Fleming, M. (2008). Mindfulness meditation for alcohol relapse prevention: a feasibility pilot study. Journal of Addiction Medicine, 2(3), 165–173. doi:10.1097/ADM.0b013e31816f8546.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Appendix A
Appendix A
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Visted, E., Vøllestad, J., Nielsen, M.B. et al. The Impact of Group-Based Mindfulness Training on Self-Reported Mindfulness: a Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Mindfulness 6, 501–522 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-014-0283-5
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-014-0283-5