Skip to main content
Log in

Structural interpretation and geo-hazard assessment of a locking line: 2005 Kashmir earthquake, western Himalayas

Environmental Earth Sciences Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The 08 October 2005, magnitude (Mw) 06 Kashmir earthquake occurred along the Balakot–Bagh fault (BBF) with about 30° dip toward NE in the internal part of the western Himalayas in north Pakistan. It was accompanied by a ground rupture of about 75 km with an average slip of about 5 m along the causative fault. The epicenter of the thrust was located at about 19 km to the NE of its surface trace in Muzaffarabad with about 11 km depth of the hypocenter. The geometry of the fault based on a structural cross section has allowed us to interpret it as a thrust restricted to a roof sequence along a triangle zone across the Hazara–Kashmir syntaxis (HKS). The triangle zone is occupied at depth by a wedge of the Higher Himalayan Sequence (HHS) in the core zone of the HKS. The core–wedge is bounded between the NE-dipping BBF and SE- to SW-dipping thrust stack of the Lesser Himalayan Sequence (LHS) along the northeastern and southwestern limb of the HKS, respectively. Based on surface geology, the overlapping BBF and MBT are interpreted to merge at depth in a roof thrust of Pre-Cambrian (Late Proterozoic) rocks above a duplex which is inferred to have a floor thrust in Early Proterozoic/Archean rocks. The core–wedge is located over a ramp which is connected to the floor thrust in the basement. The BBF is inferred to be active, at least since 1–0.5 Ma, with recurrence interval of about 625 ± 125 years. This out-of-sequence deformation is represented by linear seismicity, both along emergent and blind thrusts in the system, with likelihood of major events as a result of strain buildup due to slow convergence rates (~7 mm/year) in the region. Many towns located along the active fault trace were destroyed or largely damaged due to the earthquake. Major destruction of human dwellings and infrastructure occurred as a consequence of earthquake-triggered landslides, mostly along fault, high river terraces, and road cuts. To minimize future damages in earthquake-prone areas, several mitigation measures are suggested including: (1) avoiding new settlements near the fault trace and landslide susceptible areas, (2) establishment of new township schemes in relatively safer areas with earthquake-sustainable structural designs, and (3) extensive forestation for slope stability, erosion control, and provision of wood for flexible earthquake-resistant structures. The measures are needed for the sustainable development of the region.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10
Fig. 11
Fig. 12
Fig. 13

References

  • ADB-WB (2005) Preliminary damage and need assessment—Pakistan earthquake. Asian Development Band and World Bank, Islamabad

    Google Scholar 

  • Ambraseys N, Douglas J (2004) Magnitude calibration of north Indian earthquakes. Geophys J Int 159:165–206

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ambraseys N, Lensen G, Moinfar S (1981) The Pattan (Pakistan) earthquake of 1974: field observations. Q J Eng Geol Hydrogeol 14:1–16

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Avouac JP, Ayoub F, Leprince S, Konca O, Helmberger V (2006) The 2005, Mw 7.6 Kashmir earthquake: sub-pixel correlation of ASTER images and seismic waveforms analysis. Earth Planet Sci Lett 249:514–528

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baig MS (2006) Active faulting and earthquake deformation in Hazara–Kashmir Syntaxis, Azad Kashmir, Pakistan. In: Kausar AB, Karim T, Khan T (eds) Proceedings of international conference on 8 October 2005 earthquake in Pakistan: its implications and hazard mitigation. Geological Survey of Pakistan, pp 27–28

  • Baig MS, Yeats RS, MonaLisa, Pervez S, Mahmood B, Sohail MA, Jadoon IAK, Kousar AB, (2008) Active deformation, fault segmentation, scarp morphology, seismic hazard assessment, and geohazards along Muzaffarabad fault, Hazara–Kashmir Syntaxis, Northwest Himalayas, Pakistan. International conference “Earthquake Hazard Pakistan: Post October-8, 2005 Muzaffarabad Earthquake Scenario” August 22–23, 2008, Baragali, Abs, pp 8–10

  • Baker DM, Lillie RJ, Yeats RS, Johnson GD, Yousaf M, Zaman ASH (1988) Development of the Himalayan thrust zone: salt range, Pakistan. Geology 16:3–7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Banks CJ, Warburton J (1986) ‘Passive-roof’ duplex geometry in the frontal structure of the Kirthar and Sulaiman mountain belt, Pakistan. J Struct Geol 8:229–237

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Basharat M, Rohn J, Baig MS, Ehret D (2012) Lithological and structural control of Hattian Bala rock avalanche triggered by the Kashmir earthquake 2005, NW Himalaya, Pakistan. J Ear Sci 23(2):213–224

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Basharat M, Rohn J, Baig MS, Khan MR (2014) Spatial distribution analysis of mass movements triggered by the 2005 Kashmir earthquake in the Northeast Himalayas of Pakistan. Geomorphology 206:203–214

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beck RA et al (1995) Stratigraphic evidence for an early collision between Northwest India and Asia. Nature 373:55–58

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bendick R, Bilham R, Khan MA, Khan SF (2007) Slip on an active wedge thrust from geodetic observations of the 8 October 2005 Kashmir earthquake. Geology 35:267–270

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bilham R (2004) Earthquakes in India and the Himalaya: tectonics, geodesy and history. Ann Geophys 47:839–858

    Google Scholar 

  • Bilham R, Gaur VK, Molnar P (2001) Himalayan seismic hazard. Science 293:1442–1444

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bilham RG, Szeliga W, Bali BS, Khan A, Wahab A, Khan F, Qazi S (2011) Velocity Field in the NW Himalayan syntaxis: implications for future Seismicity. Am Geoph Uni, Fall Meeting 2011, Abs T54B-06

  • Bossart P, Dietrich D, Greco A, Ottiger R, Ramsay JG (1988) The tectonic structure of the Hazara-Kashmir syntaxis, southern Himalayas, Pakistan. Tectonics 7:273–297

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boyer SE, Elliot D (1982) Thrust systems. Am Assoc Pet Geol Bull 66:1196–1230

    Google Scholar 

  • Burbank DW, Johnson GD (1983) The late Cenozoic chronologic and stratigraphic development of the Kashmir intermontane basin, northwestern Himalaya. Palaeogeogr Palaeoclimatol Palaeoecol 43:205–235

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burbank DW, Raynolds RGH (1984) Sequential late Cenozoic structural disruption of the northern Himalayan foredeep. Nature 311:114–118

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burbank DW, Raynolds RGH (1988) Stratigraphic keys to the timing of thrusting in the terrestrial foreland basins: applications to the northwest Himalaya. In: Kleinspahn KL, Paol C (eds) Frontiers in sedimentary geology, new perspective in basin analysis. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York, pp 331–351

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Chapple WM (1978) Mechanics of thin-skinned fold-and-thrust belts. Geol Soc Am Bull 89:1189–1198

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • COMET (2005) Locating the Kashmir fault. Center for Observation and Modeling of Earthquakes and Tectonics. Web Report http://comet.nerc.ac.uk/news_kashmir.html

  • Coward MP, Butler RA (1991) Thrust tectonics and the deep structure of the Pakistan Himalaya. Geology 13:417–420

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davis DJ, Suppe J, Dahlen FA (1983) Mechanics of fold-and-thrust belts and accretionary wedges. J Geophys Res 88:1153–1172

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DeCelles PG, Gerels GE, Najman Y, Martin AJ, Carter A, Garzanti E (2004) Detrital geochronology and geochemistry of Cretaceous-early Miocene strata of Nepal: implications for timing and diachroneity of initial Himalayan orogenesis. Earth Planet Sci Lett 227:313–330

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DeMets C, Gordon R, Argus D, Stein S (1990) Current plate motions. Geophys J Int 101:425–478

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DiePetro JA, Pogue KR (2004) Tectonostratigraphic subdivisions of the Himalayas: a view from the West. Tectonics 23:1–20

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunning SA, Mitchel WA, Rosser NJ, Petley DN (2007) The Hattian Bala rock avalanche and associated landslides triggered by the Kashmir earthquake of 8 October 2005. Eng Geol 93(3–4):130–144

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duroy Y, Farrah A, Lillie RJ (1989) Subsurface densities and lithospheric flexure of the Himalayan foreland in Pakistan. In: Malinconico, Lillie RJ (eds) Tectonics of the Western Himalayas, vol 232. Geological Society of America Bulletin, London, pp 217–236

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • EEFIT (2006) EEFIT Mission: October 8, 2005 Kashmir earthquake. Web Report: www.istructe.org.uk

  • EERI(2006) The Kashmir earthquake of October 8, 2005: Impacts in Pakistan. EERI Special Report

  • Haseeb M, Xinhailu, Bibi A, Khan JZ, Ahmad I, Malik R (2011) Construction of earthquake resistant buildings and infrastructure implementing seismic design and building code in northern Pakistan 2005 earthquake affected area. Int J Bus Soc Sci 2:168–177

    Google Scholar 

  • Humayon M, Lawrence RD, Lillie RJ (1991) Structural interpretation of eastern Sulaiman foldbelt and foredeep, Pakistan. Tectonics 10:299–324

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hussain A, Yeats R (2006) The Bagh-Balakot fault that triggered the October 8 earthquake and other active faults in the Himalayan foreland region, Pakistan. In: Kausar AB, Karim T, Khan T (eds) Proceedings of international conference on 8 October 2005 earthquake in Pakistan: its implications and hazard mitigation. Geological Survey of Pakistan, pp 115–116

  • Hussain A, Yeats R, MonaLisa (2009) Geological setting of the 8 October 2005 Kashmir earthquake. J Seismol 13:315–325

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jadoon IAK, Frisch W (1997) Hinterland vergent tectonic wedge below the Riwat thrust, Himalayan foreland, Pakistan: implications for hydrocarbon exploration. Am Assoc Petrol Geol Bull 81:438–448

    Google Scholar 

  • Jadoon IAK, Khurshid A (1996) Gravity and tectonic model across the Sulaiman fold belt and the Chaman fault zone in western Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan. Tectonophysics 254:89–109

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jadoon IAK, Lawrence RD, Lillie RJ (1994) Seismic data geometry evolution and shortening in the active Sulaiman fold-and-thrust belt of Pakistan. Am Assoc Petrol Geol Bull 78:758–774

    Google Scholar 

  • Jadoon IAK, Kemal A, Frisch W, Jaswal TM (1997) Thrust geometries and kinematics in the Himalayan foreland (North Potwar Deformed Zone), North Pakistan. Geolog Rundsch 86:120–131

    Google Scholar 

  • Jadoon IAK, Frisch W, Jaswal TM, Kemal A (1999) Triangle zone in the Himalayan foreland, north Pakistan. Geol Soc Am, Spec Pap 328:277–286

    Google Scholar 

  • Jadoon IAK, Hinderer M, Wazir B, Yousaf R, Bahadar S, Hassan M, Jadoon S (2014) Structural styles, hydrocarbon prospects, and potential in the salt range Potwar Plateau, North Pakistan. Arab J Geosci. doi:10.1007/s12517-014-1566-9

    Google Scholar 

  • Jouanne F, Awan A, Madji A, Pêcher A, Latif M, Kausar A, Mugnier JL, Khan I, Khan NA (2011) Postseismic deformation in Pakistan after the 8 October 2005 earthquake: evidence of afterslip along a flat north of the Balakot-Bagh thrust. J Geophys Res 116:1–22

    Google Scholar 

  • Jouanne F, Awan A, Pêcher A, Kausar A, Mugnier JL, Khan I, Khan NA (2014) Present-day deformation of northern Pakistan from salt ranges to Karakoram ranges. J Geophys Res. doi:10.1002/2013JB010776

    Google Scholar 

  • Kamp U, Growley BJ, Khattak GA, Owen LA (2008) GIS-based landslide susectibility mapping for the 2005 Kashmir earthquake region. Geomorphology 101:631–642

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaneda H, Nakata T, Tsutsumi H, Kondo H, Sugito N, Awata Y, Akhtar SS, Majid A, Khattak W, Awan AA, Yeats RS, Hussain A, Ashraf M, Wesnousky SG, Kausar AB (2008) Surface rupture of the 2005 Kashmir Pakistan earthquake and its active tectonic implications. Seismol Soc Am Bull 98:521–557

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Khan MR, Ali M (1997) Tectonics of Hazara and adjoining areas based on gravity data, northwest Himalaya Pakistan. Geol Bull Uni Pesh 30:273–283

    Google Scholar 

  • Khan MA, Bendick R, Bhat MI, Bilham R, Kakar DM, Khan SF, Lodi SH, Qazi MS, Singh B, Sceliga W, Wahab A (2008) Preliminary geodetic constraints on the plate boundary deformation on the western edge of the Indian plate from TriGGnet (Tri-University GPS Geodesy Network). J Himal Ear Sci 41:71–87

    Google Scholar 

  • Khan KP, Mohanty S, Mohanty M (2010) Geodynamics response of 8 October 2005 North Pakistan earthquake. Surv Geophys 31:85–106

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Khan SF, Kamp U, Owen LA (2013) Documentation five years of land sliding after the 2005 Kashmir earthquake, using repeat photography. Geomorphology 197:45–55

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Khattak GA, Owen LA, Kamp U, Harp EL (2010) Evolution of earthquake triggered landslides in the Kashmir Himalaya, northern Pakistan. Geomorphology 115:102–108

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klootwijk CT, Gee JS, Pierce JW, Smith GM, McFadden PL (1992) An early India-Asia contact: paleomagnetic constraints from ninety east ridge: ocean drilling program: Leg 121. Geology 20:395–398

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kondo H, Nakata T, Akhtar SS, Wesnousky SG, Sugito N, Kaneda H, Tsutsumi H, Khan AM, Khattak W, Kausar AB (2008) Long recurrence interval of faulting beyond the 2005 Kashmir earthquake around northwestern margin of the Indo-Asian collision zone. Geology 36:731–734

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Le Fort P (1975) Himalayas the collided range. Present knowledge of the continental arc. Am J Sci 275A:1–44

    Google Scholar 

  • Lillie RJ, Johnson GD, Yousaf M, Zamin ASH, Yeats RS (1987) Structural development within the Himalayan foreland fold-and-thrust belt of Pakistan. In: Beaumont C, Tankand AJ (eds) Sedimentary basins and basin-forming mechanisms. Can Soc Petrol Geol Mem 12:379–392

  • Mitra M, Bhattacharyya K, Mukul M (2010) The lesser Himalayan duplex in Sikkim: implications for variations in Himalayan shortening. J Geol Soc India 75:289–301

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MonaLisa (2009) Recent seismic activity in the NW Himalayan fold and thrust belt, Pakistan: focal mechanism solution and its tectonic implications. Geol Soc Lond Spec Publ 316:259–267

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nakata T, Tsutsumi H, Khan SH, Lawrence RD (1991) Active faults of Pakistan: map sheets and inventories. Spec pub 21, Research Center for Regional Geography, Hiroshima University

  • Owen LA, Kamp U, Khattak GA, Harp EL, Keefer DK, Bauer MA (2008) Landslides triggered by the October 8, 2005, Kashmir earthquake. Geomorphology 94:1–9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parson T, Yeats RS, Yagi Y, Hussain A (2006) Static stress change from the October, 2005 M = 7.6 Kashmir earthquake. Geophys Res Lett 33:L06304. doi:10.1029/2005GL025429

    Google Scholar 

  • Powell CMA (1979) A spectacular tectonic history of Pakistan and adjoining regions: some constraints from Indian ocean. In: Farah A, DeJong KA (eds) Geodynamics of Pakistan. Geological Survey of Pakistan, Quetta, pp 5–24

    Google Scholar 

  • Quittmeyer RC, Farah A, Jacob KH (1979) The seismicity of Pakistan and its relation to surface faults. In: Farah A, DeJong KA (eds) Geodynamics of Pakistan. Geological Survey of Pakistan, Quetta, pp 271–284

    Google Scholar 

  • Rafi Z, Haider A (2006) Seismic hazard analysis zonation for northern areas of Pakistan and Kashmir. Report Met Depart

  • Reddy CD, Prajapati SK (2008) GPS measurements of postseismic deformation due to October 8, 2005 Kashmir earthquake. J Seismol 13:415–420

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rehman HU, Yamamoto H, Kaneko Y, Kausar AB, Murato M, Ozawa H (2007) Therobaric structure of the Himalyan metamorphic belt in Kaghan Valley, Pakistan. J Asian Earth Sci 29:390–406

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Saba SB, Meijde VDM, Werff HVD (2010) Spatiotemporal landslide detection for the 2005 Kashmir earthquake region. Geomorphology 124:17–25

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sato HP, Hasegawa H, Fujiwara S, Tobita M, Koarai M, Une H, Iwahashi J (2007) Interpretation of landslide distribution triggered by the 2005 Northern Pakistan earthquake using SPOT 5 imagery. Landslides 4:113–122

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seeber L, Armbruster J (1979) Seismicity of the Hazara Arc in northern Pakistan: decollement versus basement faulting. In: Farah A, DeJong KA (eds) Geodynamics of Pakistan. Geological Survey of Pakistan, Quetta, pp 131–142

    Google Scholar 

  • Seeber L, Armbruster JG, Quittmeyer RC (1981) Seismicity and continental subduction in the Himalayan arc. In: Gubta HK, Delany FM (eds) Zagros-Hindukush-Himalaya— Geodynamic Evolution American Geophysical Union, Geodynamic Series 3, pp 215–242

  • Tahirkheli RAK, Mattauer M, Proust F, Tapponier P (1979) The India-Eurasia suture zone in northern Pakistan: synthesis and interpretation of data at plate scale. In: Farah A, DeJong KA (eds) Geodynamics of Pakistan. Geological Survey of Pakistan, Quetta, pp 125–130

    Google Scholar 

  • Thakur VC, Pandey AK (2004) Late quaternary tectonic evolution of Dun fault bend/propagated fold system Garhwal sub-Himalaya. Curr Sci 87:1567–1576

    Google Scholar 

  • Treloar PJ, Potts GJ, Wheeler J, Rex DC (1991) Structural evolution and asymmetric uplift of the Nanga Parbat syntaxis, Pakistan Himalaya. Geologishe Rundshau 80:411–428

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Treloar PJ, Coward MP, Chambers AF, Izatt CN, Jackson KC (1992) Thrust geometries, interferences, and rotations in the northwest Himalaya. In: McClay KR (ed) Thrust tectonics. Chapman and Hall, London, pp 325–342

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Vann IR, Graham RH, Hayward AB (1986) The structure of mountain fronts. J Struct Geol 8:215–227

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Verma RK, Sekhar CC (1986) Focal mechanism solutions and nature of plate movements in Pakistan. J Geodyn 5:331–351

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wallace K, Bilham R, Blume F, Gaur VK, Gahalaut V (2005) Surface deformation in the region of the 1905 Kangra Mw = 7.8 earthquake in the period 1846–2001. Geophys Res Lett 32(15):L15307. doi:10.1029/2005GL022906

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yeats RS, Lillie RS (1991) Contemporary tectonics of the Himalayan frontal fault system: folds, blind thrusts and the 1905 Kangra earthquake. J Struct Geol 13:215–225

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yin A (2006) Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the Himalyan orogen as constrained by along-strike variation of structural geometry, exhumation history, and foreland sedimentation. Earth Sci Rev 76:1–131

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We gratefully acknowledge Alexander von Humboldt Foundation for research fellowship to the first author, and COMSTAS Institute of Information Technology, Eberhard Karls University (Tübingen), and Technical University of Darmstadt for logistical support during 2007 and 2011. A critical review by Prof. Mohammad Haneef, helped to improve the manuscript. We pay our gratitude to him for correction of the language and grammar, and offer our special thanks to the anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ishtiaq A. K. Jadoon.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Jadoon, I.A.K., Hinderer, M., Kausar, A.B. et al. Structural interpretation and geo-hazard assessment of a locking line: 2005 Kashmir earthquake, western Himalayas. Environ Earth Sci 73, 7587–7602 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-014-3929-7

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-014-3929-7

Keywords

Navigation