Abstract
The excavation of Ghar-e Boof, a cave in the Zagros Mountains, places the site not only at the center of discussion on the transition to and development of its regional lithic tradition: the Rostamian (37,000–31,000 BP), but also in differentiating between plants used by humans or mere traces of the surrounding vegetation. The large pulses of Lathyrus or Vicia sp. recovered from this shallow cave in the southwest of Iran may, for instance, represent food collected from wild stands already in the early Upper Palaeolithic. The seeds of barley (Hordeum sp.), although not all clearly domesticated, are without doubt signs of disturbance or bioturbation since the historic era. Analysis of cave deposits over 30,000 years old raise a number of methodological and interpretive challenges. Human, taphonomic, or biomechanical disturbances impact the deposition of plant remains, as well as affect the composition of the assemblages, undermining spatial and ecological examination of the data set. Comprehension of provenance of the samples, site genesis, and matrix development, through detailed micromorphological and stratigraphical studies, is thus suggested in conjunction with the archaeobotanical analyses, to identify disturbances, define their cause, and treat them appropriately. Numerical studies and ecological interpretations of climate, vegetation composition, or indications of human activity therefore follow specific criteria discussed here. Despite signs of disturbance in the plant assemblages, archaeobotanic research can lead to recognition of environmental conditions, plausible human subsistence, site use and seasonality, and sound vegetation description.
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Acknowledgements
Unerring gratitude to Harald Hirschprung for his grand medical research. Further thanks to my parents, Saman Heydari-Guran, Katleen Deckers, Paul Goldberg, and Flora Schilt for their support and inspiration.
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Appendix
Appendix
Number of specimens | Number of records | |||||||||||
IIb | IIb.1 | III | IIIa | IIIb | IV | IIb | IIb.1 | III | IIIa | IIIb | IV | |
Alopecurus sp. | 16 | – | 8 | 1 | 1 | – | 1 | – | 7 | 1 | 1 | – |
Althaea officinalis | – | – | 1 | – | – | – | – | – | 1 | – | – | – |
Asteraceae indet. | – | – | 2 | – | – | – | – | – | 2 | – | – | – |
Astragalus sp. | – | 1 | 1 | – | – | – | – | 1 | 1 | – | – | – |
Atriplex sp. | – | 2 | 13 | 1 | – | – | – | 1 | 8 | 1 | – | – |
Brassicaceae indet. | – | – | 2 | – | – | – | – | – | 2 | – | – | – |
Bromium sp. | 1 | – | – | – | – | – | 1 | – | – | – | – | – |
Camelina sp. | – | – | 1 | – | – | – | – | – | 1 | – | – | – |
Carex sp. | – | 1 | 6 | – | 1 | – | – | 1 | 3 | – | 1 | – |
Centaurea sp. | – | 1 | – | – | – | – | – | 1 | – | – | – | – |
Cerastium sp. | – | – | 7 | – | – | – | – | – | 4 | – | – | – |
Chenopodiaceae indet. | 100 | 44 | 221 | 25 | 18 | 4 | 4 | 8 | 61 | 13 | 9 | 1 |
Chenopodium foliosum | – | – | 2 | – | – | – | – | – | 2 | – | – | – |
Chenopodium murale | 14 | 28 | 22 | 1 | – | – | 3 | 5 | 8 | 1 | – | – |
Chenopodium sp. | 21 | 9 | 139 | 14 | 12 | – | 2 | 2 | 48 | 5 | 4 | – |
Chenopodium urbicum | – | – | 1 | – | – | – | – | – | 1 | – | – | – |
Cyperaceae indet. | – | 2 | 5 | – | – | – | – | 2 | 5 | – | – | – |
Echium cf. vulgare | 1 | – | 157 | 20 | 3 | – | 1 | – | 58 | 15 | 3 | – |
Eleusine sp. | – | – | – | – | 1 | – | – | – | – | – | 1 | – |
Epilobium cf. palustre | – | – | – | 2 | – | – | – | – | – | 2 | – | – |
Fabaceae indet. | 17 | 4 | 74 | 9 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 33 | 5 | 1 | 1 |
Ficus sp. | – | 1 | 1 | – | – | – | – | 1 | 1 | – | – | – |
Galium sp. | – | – | 6 | – | 3 | – | – | – | 6 | 2 | – | – |
Genista sp. | – | – | 1 | – | 1 | – | – | – | 1 | – | 1 | – |
Geranium sp. | – | – | – | – | 1 | – | – | – | – | – | 1 | – |
Glaucium sp. | – | – | 2 | – | – | – | – | – | 2 | – | – | – |
Helianthemum salicifolium | – | 3 | 3 | – | – | – | – | 3 | 3 | – | – | – |
Helianthemum sp. | – | 1 | 8 | 1 | – | – | – | 1 | 4 | 1 | – | – |
Heliotropium europeum | – | 1 | 4 | – | – | 2 | – | 1 | 3 | – | – | 1 |
Hippocrepis sp. | 2 | 3 | 16 | 2 | – | – | 1 | 3 | 12 | 1 | – | – |
Hordeum sp. | 45 | – | 18 | 1 | – | – | 11 | – | 13 | 1 | – | – |
Hypericum sp. | 1 | – | – | – | – | – | 1 | – | – | – | – | – |
Lallemantia cf. peltata | – | – | – | 1 | – | – | – | – | – | 1 | – | – |
Lapulla sp. | – | 2 | 52 | 36 | 94 | – | – | 1 | 28 | 9 | 8 | – |
Lathyrus/Vicia sp. | 16 | 2 | 80 | 2 | 14 | 2 | 3 | 1 | 21 | 1 | 3 | 1 |
Lepidium sp. | – | – | 2 | – | 1 | – | – | – | 2 | – | 1 | – |
Linum sp. | 1 | – | – | – | – | – | 1 | – | – | – | – | – |
Lithospermae | 10 | 15 | 34 | 1 | – | – | 1 | 5 | 19 | 1 | – | – |
Lolium perenne | 1 | – | – | – | – | – | 1 | – | – | – | – | – |
Lolium sp. | 3 | 1 | 12 | 1 | – | – | 2 | 1 | 4 | 1 | – | – |
Lotus/Melilotus sp. | – | – | 2 | – | – | – | – | – | 2 | – | – | – |
Malva sp. | 3 | – | 24 | 2 | – | – | 3 | – | 21 | 1 | – | – |
Medicago sp. | 91 | 80 | 251 | 23 | 6 | – | 11 | 9 | 66 | 10 | 6 | – |
Melica sp. | – | – | 1 | – | – | – | – | – | 1 | – | – | – |
Minuartia sp. | – | – | 4 | 2 | – | – | – | – | 1 | 2 | – | – |
Onobrychis sp. | 1 | – | – | – | – | – | 1 | – | – | – | – | – |
Onosma cf. tauricum | – | – | 16 | 5 | 1 | – | – | – | 9 | 4 | 1 | – |
Oryza sp. | – | – | 2 | – | – | – | – | – | 2 | – | – | – |
Panicum sp. | – | – | – | 1 | 1 | – | – | – | – | 1 | 1 | – |
Panicum/Setaria–Tetrapogon | – | 2 | 9 | 4 | 2 | – | – | 2 | 7 | 4 | 2 | – |
Papaver sp. | – | – | 1 | – | – | – | – | – | 1 | – | – | – |
Persicaria hydropiper | – | – | 3 | – | 1 | – | – | – | 1 | – | – | – |
Phalaris sp. | 1 | – | 4 | – | – | – | 1 | – | 4 | – | – | – |
Plantago cf. lagopus | – | 2 | 3 | – | – | – | – | 1 | 3 | – | – | – |
Plantago sp. | – | 1 | 11 | 1 | 3 | – | – | 1 | 11 | 1 | 3 | – |
Poaceae indet. | 6 | 2 | 58 | 6 | 8 | – | 2 | 2 | 29 | 5 | 6 | – |
Polygonaceae indet. | – | – | 2 | – | – | – | – | – | 3 | – | 1 | – |
Polygonum aviculare | – | – | 2 | – | – | – | – | – | 1 | – | – | – |
Polygonum sp. | – | – | 1 | – | – | – | – | – | 1 | – | – | – |
Portulaca oleracea | – | – | 1 | – | – | – | – | – | 8 | 1 | 1 | – |
Portulacaceae indet. | – | – | 11 | 1 | 5 | – | – | 1 | 2 | – | – | – |
Prunus sp. | – | – | 6 | 2 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
Ranunculus sp. | – | 4 | 2 | – | – | – | – | – | 2 | – | – | – |
Reseda cf. lutea | – | – | 2 | – | – | – | – | – | 15 | – | 3 | – |
Reseda sp. | – | – | 23 | – | 3 | – | – | – | 6 | – | 1 | – |
Rumex sp. | – | – | 4 | – | – | – | – | – | 4 | – | – | – |
Salsola cf. laricina | – | – | 2 | – | 2 | – | – | – | 2 | – | 1 | – |
Scirpus sp. | 68 | 75 | 282 | 61 | 20 | 1 | 10 | 5 | 64 | 7 | 6 | 1 |
Scorpiurus sp. | 2 | 1 | 6 | – | – | – | 2 | 1 | 5 | – | – | – |
Scrophularia sp. | – | 1 | 2 | 1 | – | – | – | 1 | – | – | – | – |
Silene cf. otitis | 1 | – | 3 | – | – | – | 1 | – | 3 | – | – | – |
Silene colorata | – | – | 1 | – | – | – | – | – | 1 | – | – | – |
Silene linicola | – | – | 1 | – | – | – | – | – | 1 | – | – | – |
Sisymbrium sp. | – | – | 2 | – | 1 | – | – | – | 2 | – | 1 | – |
Solanum sp. | – | – | 1 | – | – | – | – | 1 | – | – | – | – |
Stellaria sp. | – | – | 3 | 1 | – | – | – | – | 3 | 1 | – | – |
Stipa sp. | – | – | 3 | – | – | – | – | – | 3 | – | – | – |
Trifolium sp. | 2 | 16 | 31 | 1 | – | – | 2 | 4 | 18 | 1 | – | – |
Trigonella sp. | 1 | – | 3 | – | – | – | 1 | – | 2 | – | – | – |
Triticum sp. | 11 | – | 2 | – | – | – | 3 | – | 2 | – | – | – |
Urtica urens | – | 1 | – | – | – | – | – | – | 1 | – | – | – |
Valerianella cf. dentata | 1 | – | 3 | 2 | – | – | 1 | – | 3 | 1 | – | – |
Verbascum sp. | – | 1 | – | – | – | – | – | – | 1 | – | – | – |
Veronica sp. | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 1 | 2 | 1 | – | – |
Number of samples | 17 | 12 | 205 | 35 | 33 | 50 | ||||||
Number of specimens | 437 | 307 | 1,687 | 231 | 204 | 10 | ||||||
The amount of records means how often the taxa were found in each horizon
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Baines, J.A., Riehl, S., Conard, N. et al. Upper Palaeolithic archaeobotany of Ghar-e Boof cave, Iran: a case study in site disturbance and methodology. Archaeol Anthropol Sci 7, 245–256 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-014-0191-6
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-014-0191-6