Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

An overview of risk factors for poor neurodevelopmental outcome associated with prematurity

  • Review Article
  • Published:
World Journal of Pediatrics Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Background

Preterm birth is a major cause of neonatal mortality and morbidity. While advances in medical care have improved the survival of preterm infants, neurodevelopmental problems persist in this population. This article aims to review factors associated with their neurodevelopmental outcomes.

Data sources

English language studies of neurodevelopmental outcomes in preterm infants were retrieved from PubMed. A total of 100 related publications were included.

Results

Early gestational age and birth weight are the most significant predictors of poor long-term neurological outcome. Structural changes of the brain, infection, male gender and neonatal intensive care unit course are also important factors affecting eventual outcome. Other complex biological and socio-economic factors, which extend from prenatal through postnatal periods, up through and including adulthood, also affect the trajectory of brain development in preterm infants.

Conclusions

Neurodevelopmental problems continue to affect the preterm population. There is a critical need for collaboration among geneticists, obstetricians, pediatricians, and neuroimaging and rehabilitation experts to determine early predictive factors and neuroprotective therapies to properly treat or prevent poor neurodevelopmental outcomes in these infants.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Goldenberg RL, Culhane JF, Iams JD, Romero R. Epidemiology and causes of preterm birth. Lancet 2008;371:75–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Beck S, Wojdyla D, Say L, Betran AP, Merialdi M, Requejo JH, et al. The worldwide incidence of preterm birth: a systematic review of maternal mortality and morbidity. Bull World Health Organ 2010;88:31–38.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Simmons LE, Rubens CE, Darmstadt GL, Gravett MG. Preventing preterm birth and neonatal mortality: exploring the epidemiology, causes, and interventions. Semin Perinatol 2010;34:408–415.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Stephens BE, Vohr BR. Neurodevelopmental outcome of the premature infant. Pediatr Clin North Am 2009;56:631–646.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Msall ME, Park JJ. The spectrum of behavioral outcomes after extreme prematurity: regulatory, attention, social, and adaptive dimensions. Semin Perinatol 2008;32:42–50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Zwicker JG, Harris SR. Quality of life of formerly preterm and very low birth weight infants from preschool age to adulthood: a systematic review. Pediatrics 2008;121:e366–376.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Korvenranta E, Lehtonen L, Rautava L, Hakkinen U, Andersson S, Gissler M, et al. Impact of very preterm birth on health care costs at five years of age. Pediatrics 2010;125:e1109–1114.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Russell RB, Green NS, Steiner CA, Meikle S, Howse JL, Poschman K, et al. Cost of hospitalization for preterm and low birth weight infants in the United States. Pediatrics 2007;120:e1–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Gilbert WM, Nesbitt TS, Danielsen B. The cost of prematurity: quantification by gestational age and birth weight. Obstet Gynecol 2003;102:488–492.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Clements KM, Barfield WD, Ayadi MF, Wilber N. Preterm birthassociated cost of early intervention services: an analysis by gestational age. Pediatrics 2007;119:e866–874.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Anderson PJ, Doyle LW. Cognitive and educational deficits in children born extremely preterm. Semin Perinatol 2008;32:51–58.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. McCormick MC, Litt JS, Smith VC, Zupancic JA. Prematurity: an overview and public health implications. Annu Rev Public Health 2011;32:367–379.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Larroque B, Ancel PY, Marret S, Marchand L, Andre M, Arnaud C, et al. Neurodevelopmental disabilities and special care of 5-year-old children born before 33 weeks of gestation (the EPIPAGE study): a longitudinal cohort study. Lancet 2008;371:813–820.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Vieira ME, Linhares MB. Developmental outcomes and quality of life in children born preterm at preschool- and school-age. J Pediatr (Rio J) 2011;87:281–291.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Indredavik MS, Vik T, Evensen KA, Skranes J, Taraldsen G, Brubakk AM. Perinatal risk and psychiatric outcome in adolescents born preterm with very low birth weight or term small for gestational age. J Dev Behav Pediatr 2010;31:286–294.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Baron IS, Rey-Casserly C. Extremely preterm birth outcome: a review of four decades of cognitive research. Neuropsychol Rev 2010;20:430–452.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Roberts G, Anderson PJ, De Luca C, Doyle LW. Changes in neurodevelopmental outcome at age eight in geographic cohorts of children born at 22–27 weeks’ gestational age during the 1990s. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2010;95:F90–94.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Hintz SR, Kendrick DE, Wilson-Costello DE, Das A, Bell EF, Vohr BR, et al. Early-childhood neurodevelopmental outcomes are not improving for infants born at <25 weeks’ gestational age. Pediatrics 2011;127:62–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Vohr BR, Wright L L, Poole WK, McDonald SA. Neurodevelopmental outcomes of extremely low birth weight infants <32 weeks’ gestation between 1993 and 1998. Pediatrics 2005;116:635–643.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Sugiura T, Kouwaki M, Togawa Y, Sugimoto M, Togawa T, Koyama N. Neurodevelopmental outcomes at 18 months’ corrected age of infants born at 22 weeks of gestation. Neonatology 2011;100:228–232.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Steinmacher J, Pohlandt F, Bode H, Sander S, Kron M, Franz AR. Neurodevelopmental follow-up of very preterm infants after proactive treatment at a gestational age of > or = 23 weeks. J Pediatr 2008;152:771–776, 776.e 1-2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Roberts G, Anderson PJ, Doyle LW. The stability of the diagnosis of developmental disability between ages 2 and 8 in a geographic cohort of very preterm children born in 1997. Arch Dis Child 2010;95:786–790.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Rijken M, Stoelhorst GM, Martens SE, van Zwieten PH, Brand R, Wit JM, et al. Mortality and neurologic, mental, and psychomotor development at 2 years in infants born less than 27 weeks’ gestation: the Leiden follow-up project on prematurity. Pediatrics 2003;112:351–358.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Johnson S, Fawke J, Hennessy E, Rowell V, Thomas S, Wolke D, et al. Neurodevelopmental disability through 11 years of age in children born before 26 weeks of gestation. Pediatrics 2009;124:e249–257.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Marlow N, Wolke D, Bracewell MA, Samara M. Neurologic and developmental disability at six years of age after extremely preterm birth. N Engl J Med 2005;352:9–19.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. De Groote I, Vanhaesebrouck P, Bruneel E, Dom L, Durein I, Hasaerts D, et al. Outcome at 3 years of age in a populationbased cohort of extremely preterm infants. Obstet Gynecol 2007;110:855–864.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Lorenz JM. Survival and long-term neurodevelopmental outcome of the extremely preterm infant. A systematic review. Saudi Med J 2011;32:885–894.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Guillen U, DeMauro S, Ma L, Zupancic J, Roberts R, Schmidt B, et al. Relationship between attrition and neurodevelopmental impairment rates in extremely preterm infants at 18 to 24 months: a systematic review. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2012;166:178–184.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Rieger-Fackeldey E, Blank C, Dinger J, Steinmacher J, Bode H, Schulze A. Growth, neurological and cognitive development in infants with a birthweight <501 g at age 5 years. Acta Paediatr 2010;99:1350–1355.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Barre N, Morgan A, Doyle LW, Anderson PJ. Language abilities in children who were very preterm and/or very low birth weight: a meta-analysis. J Pediatr 2011;158:766–774.e1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Leversen KT, Sommerfelt K, Ronnestad A, Kaaresen PI, Farstad T, Skranes J, et al. Prediction of neurodevelopmental and sensory outcome at 5 years in Norwegian children born extremely preterm. Pediatrics 2011;127:e630–638.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Veen S, Ens-Dokkum MH, Schreuder AM, Verloove-Vanhorick SP, Brand R, Ruys JH. Impairments, disabilities, and handicaps of very preterm and very-low-birthweight infants at five years of age. The Collaborative Project on Preterm and Small for Gestational Age Infants (POPS) in The Netherlands. Lancet 1991;338:33–36.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Potharst ES, van Wassenaer AG, Houtzager BA, van Hus JW, Last BF, Kok JH. High incidence of multi-domain disabilities in very preterm children at five years of age. J Pediatr 2011;159:79–85.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Hack M. Young adult outcomes of very-low-birth-weight children. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med 2006;11:127–137.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. McGowan JE, Alderdice FA, Holmes VA, Johnston L. Early childhood development of late-preterm infants: a systematic review. Pediatrics 2011;127:1111–1124.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Petrini JR, Dias T, McCormick MC, Massolo ML, Green NS, Escobar GJ. Increased risk of adverse neurological development for late preterm infants. J Pediatr 2009;154:169–176.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Samra HA, McGrath JM, Wehbe M. An integrated review of developmental outcomes and late-preterm birth. J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs 2011;40:399–411.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Valcamonico A, Accorsi P, Sanzeni C, Martelli P, La Boria P, Cavazza A, et al. Mid- and long-term outcome of extremely low birth weight (ELBW) infants: an analysis of prognostic factors. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2007;20:465–471.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Conrad AL, Richman L, Lindgren S, Nopoulos P. Biological and environmental predictors of behavioral sequelae in children born preterm. Pediatrics 2010;125:e83–89.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. de Kieviet JF, Piek JP, Aarnoudse-Moens CS, Oosterlaan J. Motor development in very preterm and very low-birth-weight children from birth to adolescence: a meta-analysis. JAMA 2009;302:2235–2242.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Moster D, Lie RT, Markestad T. Long-term medical and social consequences of preterm birth. N Engl J Med 2008;359:262–273.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Limperopoulos C, Bassan H, Sullivan NR, Soul JS, Robertson RL Jr, Moore M, et al. Positive screening for autism in expreterm infants: prevalence and risk factors. Pediatrics 2008;121:758–765.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Pinto-Martin JA, Levy SE, Feldman JF, Lorenz JM, Paneth N, Whitaker AH. Prevalence of autism spectrum disorder in adolescents born weighing <2000 grams. Pediatrics 2011;128:883–891.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Johnson S, Hollis C, Kochhar P, Hennessy E, Wolke D, Marlow N. Autism spectrum disorders in extremely preterm children. J Pediatr 2010;156:525–531.e2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Crump C, Sundquist K, Winkleby MA, Sundquist J. Preterm birth and risk of epilepsy in Swedish adults. Neurology 2011;77:1376–1382.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Lind A, Parkkola R, Lehtonen L, Munck P, Maunu J, Lapinleimu H, et al. Associations between regional brain volumes at termequivalent age and development at 2 years of age in preterm children. Pediatr Radiol 2011;41:953–961.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Schafer RJ, Lacadie C, Vohr B, Kesler SR, Katz KH, Schneider KC, et al. Alterations in functional connectivity for language in prematurely born adolescents. Brain 2009;132:661–670.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Soria-Pastor S, Padilla N, Zubiaurre-Elorza L, Ibarretxe-Bilbao N, Botet F, Costas-Moragas C, et al. Decreased regional brain volume and cognitive impairment in preterm children at low risk. Pediatrics 2009;124:e1161–1170.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Valkama AM, Paakko EL, Vainionpaa LK, Lanning FP, Ilkko EA, Koivisto ME. Magnetic resonance imaging at term and neuromotor outcome in preterm infants. Acta Paediatr 2000;89:348–355.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Neville B. Epilepsy in hemiplegic cerebral palsy due to perinatal arterial ischaemic stroke. Dev Med Child Neurol 2010;52:982.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Martinussen M, Flanders DW, Fischl B, Busa E, Lohaugen GC, Skranes J, et al. Segmental brain volumes and cognitive and perceptual correlates in 15-year-old adolescents with low birth weight. J Pediatr 2009;155:848–853.e1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Woodward LJ, Anderson PJ, Austin NC, Howard K, Inder TE. Neonatal MRI to predict neurodevelopmental outcomes in preterm infants. N Engl J Med 2006;355:685–694.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Valkama AM, Tolonen EU, Kerttul LI, Paakko EL, Vainionpaa LK, Koivist ME. Brainstem size and function at term age in relation to later neurosensory disability in high-risk, preterm infants. Acta Paediatr 2001;90:909–915.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Spittle AJ, Doyle LW, Anderson PJ, Inder TE, Lee KJ, Boyd RN, et al. Reduced cerebellar diameter in very preterm infants with abnormal general movements. Early Hum Dev 2010;86:1–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Limperopoulos C, Bassan H, Gauvreau K, Robertson RL Jr, Sullivan NR, Benson CB, et al. Does cerebellar injury in premature infants contribute to the high prevalence of longterm cognitive, learning, and behavioral disability in survivors? Pediatrics 2007;120:584–593.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Roze E, Kerstjens JM, Maathuis CG, ter Horst HJ, Bos AF. Risk factors for adverse outcome in preterm infants with periventricular hemorrhagic infarction. Pediatrics 2008;122:e46–52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Neubauer AP, Voss W, Kattner E. Outcome of extremely low birth weight survivors at school age: the influence of perinatal parameters on neurodevelopment. Eur J Pediatr 2008;167:87–95.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Roze E, Van Braeckel KN, van der Veere CN, Maathuis CG, Martijn A, Bos AF. Functional outcome at school age of preterm infants with periventricular hemorrhagic infarction. Pediatrics. 2009;123:1493–1500.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Soraisham AS, Amin HJ, Al-Hindi MY, Singhal N, Sauve RS. Does necrotising enterocolitis impact the neurodevelopmental and growth outcomes in preterm infants with birthweight < or =1250 g? J Paediatr Child Health 2006;42:499–504.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Salhab WA, Perlman JM, Silver L, Sue Broyles R. Necrotizing enterocolitis and neurodevelopmental outcome in extremely low birth weight infants <1000 g. J Perinatol 2004;24:534–540.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Martin CR, Dammann O, Allred EN, Patel S, O’shea TM, Kuban KC, et al. Neurodevelopment of extremely preterm infants who had necrotizing enterocolitis with or without late bacteremia. J Pediatr 2010;157:751–756.e1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Hintz SR, Kendrick DE, Stoll BJ, Vohr BR, Fanaroff AA, Donovan EF, et al. Neurodevelopmental and growth outcomes of extremely low birth weight infants after necrotizing enterocolitis. Pediatrics 2005;115:696–703.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Adams-Chapman I, Stoll BJ. Neonatal infection and long-term neurodevelopmental outcome in the preterm infant. Curr Opin Infect Dis 2006;19:290–297.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Stoll BJ, Hansen NI, Adams-Chapman I, Fanaroff AA, Hintz SR, Vohr B, et al. Neurodevelopmental and growth impairment among extremely low-birth-weight infants with neonatal infection. JAMA 2004;292:2357–2365.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Kent AL, Wright IM, Abdel-Latif ME. Mortality and adverse neurologic outcomes are greater in preterm male infants. Pediatrics 2012;129:124–131.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Beaino G, Khoshnood B, Kaminski M, Pierrat V, Marret S, Matis J, et al. Predictors of cerebral palsy in very preterm infants: the EPIPAGE prospective population-based cohort study. Dev Med Child Neurol 2010;52:e119–125.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Hack M, Wilson-Costello D, Friedman H, Taylor GH, Schluchter M, Fanaroff AA. Neurodevelopment and predictors of outcomes of children with birth weights of less than 1000 g: 1992–1995. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2000;154:725–731.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Wolke D, Samara M, Bracewell M, Marlow N. Specific language difficulties and school achievement in children born at 25 weeks of gestation or less. J Pediatr 2008;152:256–262.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Romeo DM, Di Stefano A, Conversano M, Ricci D, Mazzone D, Romeo MG, et al. Neurodevelopmental outcome at 12 and 18 months in late preterm infants. Eur J Paediatr Neurol 2010;14:503–507.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Dahl LB, Kaaresen PI, Tunby J, Handegard BH, Kvernmo S, Ronning JA. Emotional, behavioral, social, and academic outcomes in adolescents born with very low birth weight. Pediatrics 2006;118:e449–459.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Yates H, Newell S. Postnatal intravenous steroids and long-term neurological outcome: recommendations from meta-analyses. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2012;97:F299–303.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Doyle LW, Halliday HL, Ehrenkranz RA, Davis PG, Sinclair JC. Impact of postnatal systemic corticosteroids on mortality and cerebral palsy in preterm infants: effect modification by risk for chronic lung disease. Pediatrics 2005;115:655–661.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Halliday HL, Ehrenkranz RA, Doyle LW. Early (< 8 days) postnatal corticosteroids for preventing chronic lung disease in preterm infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2010;(1):CD001146.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Wilson-Costello D, Walsh MC, Langer JC, Guillet R, Laptook AR, Stoll BJ, et al. Impact of postnatal corticosteroid use on neurodevelopment at 18 to 22 months’ adjusted age: effects of dose, timing, and risk of bronchopulmonary dysplasia in extremely low birth weight infants. Pediatrics 2009;123:e430–437.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Onland W, Offringa M, De Jaegere AP, van Kaam AH. Finding the optimal postnatal dexamethasone regimen for preterm infants at risk of bronchopulmonary dysplasia: a systematic review of placebo-controlled trials. Pediatrics 2009;123:367–377.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Walsh MC, Morris BH, Wrage LA, Vohr BR, Poole WK, Tyson JE, et al. Extremely low birthweight neonates with protracted ventilation: mortality and 18-month neurodevelopmental outcomes. J Pediatr 2005;146:798–804.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Guellec I, Lapillonne A, Renolleau S, Charlaluk ML, Roze JC, Marret S, et al. Neurologic outcomes at school age in very preterm infants born with severe or mild growth restriction. Pediatrics 2011;127:e883–891.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Neufeld MD, Frigon C, Graham AS, Mueller BA. Maternal infection and risk of cerebral palsy in term and preterm infants. J Perinatol 2005;25:108–113.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Thomas W, Speer CP. Chorioamnionitis: important risk factor or innocent bystander for neonatal outcome? Neonatology 2011;99:177–187.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Wadhawan R, Oh W, Perritt RL, McDonald SA, Das A, Poole WK, et al. Twin gestation and neurodevelopmental outcome in extremely low birth weight infants. Pediatrics 2009;123:e220–227.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Mathur A, Inder T. Magnetic resonance imaging—insights into brain injury and outcomes in premature infants. J Commun Disord 2009;42:248–255.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Sukhov A, Wu Y, Xing G, Smith LH, Gilbert WM. Risk factors associated with cerebral palsy in preterm infants. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2012;25:53–57.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Schulzke SM, Deshpande GC, Patole SK. Neurodevelopmental outcomes of very low-birth-weight infants with necrotizing enterocolitis: a systematic review of observational studies. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2007;161:583–590.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Davis AS, Hintz SR, Van Meurs KP, Li L, Das A, Stoll BJ, et al. Seizures in extremely low birth weight infants are associated with adverse outcome. J Pediatr 2010;157:720–725.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Perlman JM. The genesis of cognitive and behavioral deficits in premature graduates of intensive care. Minerva Pediatr 2003;55:89–101.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Janvier A, Khairy M, Kokkotis A, Cormier C, Messmer D, Barrington KJ. Apnea is associated with neurodevelopmental impairment in very low birth weight infants. J Perinatol 2004;24:763–768.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Bouza H. The impact of pain in the immature brain. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2009;22:722–732.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Als H, Gilkerson L, Duffy FH, McAnulty GB, Buehler DM, Vandenberg K, et al. A three-center, randomized, controlled trial of individualized developmental care for very low birth weight preterm infants: medical, neurodevelopmental, parenting, and caregiving effects. J Dev Behav Pediatr 2003;24:399–408.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. McAnulty G, Duffy FH, Butler S, Parad R, Ringer S, Zurakowski D, et al. Individualized developmental care for a large sample of very preterm infants: health, neurobehaviour and neurophysiology. Acta Paediatr 2009;98:1920–1926.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Ehrenkranz RA, Dusick AM, Vohr BR, Wright LL, Wrage LA, Poole WK. Growth in the neonatal intensive care unit influences neurodevelopmental and growth outcomes of extremely low birth weight infants. Pediatrics 2006;117:1253–1261.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Vohr BR, Poindexter BB, Dusick AM, McKinley LT, Higgins RD, Langer JC, et al. Persistent beneficial effects of breast milk ingested in the neonatal intensive care unit on outcomes of extremely low birth weight infants at 30 months of age. Pediatrics 2007;120:e953–959.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Vohr BR, Poindexter BB, Dusick AM, McKinley LT, Wright LL, Langer JC, et al. Beneficial effects of breast milk in the neonatal intensive care unit on the developmental outcome of extremely low birth weight infants at 18 months of age. Pediatrics 2006;118:e115–123.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Treyvaud K, Anderson VA, Lee KJ, Woodward LJ, Newnham C, Inder TE, et al. Parental mental health and early social-emotional development of children born very preterm. J Pediatr Psychol 2010;35:768–777.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Loe IM, Lee ES, Luna B, Feldman HM. Behavior problems of 9-16 year old preterm children: biological, sociodemographic, and intellectual contributions. Early Hum Dev 2011;87:247–252.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Weisglas-Kuperus N, Hille ET, Duivenvoorden HJ, Finken MJ, Wit JM, van Buuren S, et al. Intelligence of very preterm or very low birthweight infants in young adulthood. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2009;94:F196–200.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Hille ET, den Ouden AL, Saigal S, Wolke D, Lambert M, Whitaker A, et al. Behavioural problems in children who weigh 1000 g or less at birth in four countries. Lancet 2001;357:1641–1643.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Hack M, Youngstrom EA, Cartar L, Schluchter M, Taylor GH, Flannery DJ, et al. Predictors of internalizing symptoms among very low birth weight young women. J Dev Behav Pediatr 2005;26:93–104.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Orton J, Spittle A, Doyle L, Anderson P, Boyd R. Do early intervention programmes improve cognitive and motor outcomes for preterm infants after discharge? A systematic review. Dev Med Child Neurol 2009;51:851–859.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Spittle AJ, Orton J, Doyle LW, Boyd R. Early developmental intervention programs post hospital discharge to prevent motor and cognitive impairments in preterm infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2007;(2):CD005495.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Doyle LW, Anderson PJ. Adult outcome of extremely preterm infants. Pediatrics 2010;126:342–351.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Pediatrics, West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China

    Tao Xiong & De-Zhi Mu

  2. Key Laboratory of Obstetric & Gynecologic and Pediatric Diseases and Birth Defects of Ministry of Education, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China

    Tao Xiong & De-Zhi Mu

  3. Departments of Neurology and Pediatrics, Newborn Brain Research Institute, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA

    Fernando Gonzalez

Authors
  1. Tao Xiong
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Fernando Gonzalez
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. De-Zhi Mu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to De-Zhi Mu.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Xiong, T., Gonzalez, F. & Mu, DZ. An overview of risk factors for poor neurodevelopmental outcome associated with prematurity. World J Pediatr 8, 293–300 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12519-012-0372-2

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12519-012-0372-2

Key words

Search

Navigation