Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Towards a Model of Positive Youth Development Specific to Girls of Color: Perspectives on Development, Resilience, and Empowerment

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Gender Issues Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This paper presents a feminist theoretical model of adolescent development for girls of color, a model that can be used to critique and resist the dominant deficit-oriented perspectives about girls of color that appear in research and educational contexts. We integrate ecological, phenomenological, and critical race feminist perspectives on development and socialization and emphasize that girls’ emerging identities are complexly heterogeneous. Our model adapts the competencies of the existing positive youth development model (Lerner et al. in J Early Adolesc 25(1):10–16, 2005) by infusing them with a critical feminist lens that emphasizes critical consciousness, resistance, and resilience and allows us to specify the model to fit the experiences of and contexts in which girls of color develop. This paper includes a presentation of our conceptual model and uses qualitative data to examine how components of our model map on to the everyday experiences of Black and Latina adolescent girls and their development.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Independent schools, according to the National Association of Independent Schools, the accrediting body for over 1400 independent schools in the U.S., are “non-profit private schools that are self-determining in mission and program. They are governed by independent boards and are funded primarily through tuition, charitable contribution, and endowment income” [30].

  2. In order to maintain confidentiality, all site names and participant names have been given pseudonyms.

References

  1. African American Policy Forum & Center for Intersectionality and Social Policy Studies (2015). Black girls matter: Pushed out, overpoliced and underprotected. New York. http://static1.squarespace.com/static/53f20d90e4b0b80451158d8c/t/54dcc1ece4b001c03e323448/1423753708557/AAPF_BlackGirlsMatterReport.pdf.

  2. Asher, N. (2007). Made in the (multicultural) USA: Unpacking tensions of race, culture, gender, and sexuality in education. Educational Researcher, 36(2), 65–73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. Banister, E., & Leadbeater, B. J. (2007). To stay or to leave?: How do mentoring groups support healthy dating relationships in high-risk girls? In B. J. R. Leadbeater & N. Way (Eds.), Urban girls Revisited: Building strengths (pp. 121–141). New York, NY: New York University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Basow, S. A., & Rubin, L. R. (1999). Gender influences on adolescent development. In N. G. Johnson, M. C. Roberts, & J. Worell (Eds.), Beyond appearance: A new look at adolescent girls (pp. 25–52). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  5. Belenky, M. F., Clinchy, B. M., Goldberger, N. R., & Tarule, J. M. (1986). Women’s ways of knowing: The development of self, voice, and mind. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  6. Belgrave, F. Z. (2009). African American girls: Reframing perceptions and changing experiences. New York, NY: Springer.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  7. Brofenbrenner, U. (1993). Ecological models of human development. In M. Gauvain & M. Cole (Eds.), Readings on the development of children (2nd ed., pp. 37–43). New York, NY: Freeman.

    Google Scholar 

  8. Brown, R. N. (2009). Black girlhood celebration: Toward a hip-hop feminist pedagogy. New York: Peter Lang.

    Google Scholar 

  9. Brown, L. M., & Gilligan, C. (1993). Meeting at the crossroads: Women’s psychology and girls’ development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  10. Bureau of Justice Statistics. (2015). Criminal victimization, 2014 (Revised Sept 29, 2015). Washington, D.C. http://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/cv14.pdf.

  11. Carter, N. A. (2012). Critical race feminism: An educational perspective. Power Play: A Journal of Educational Justice, 4(1), 1–14.

    Google Scholar 

  12. Clausen, J. S. (1991). Adolescent competence and shaping of the life course. American Journal of Sociology, 96(4), 805–842.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Collins, P. H. (1989). The social construction of Black feminist thought. Signs, 14(4), 745–773.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Collins, P. H. (1991). Black feminist thought: Knowledge, consciousness, and the politics of empowerment. New York, NY: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  15. Denner, J., & Guzman, B. L. (Eds.). (2006). Latina girls: voices of adolescent strength in the united states. New York, NY: New York University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  16. Dines, G., & Humez, J. (1995). Gender, race and class in media. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  17. Drysdale Weiler, J. (2000). Codes and Contradictions: Race, Gender Identity, and Schooling. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

    Google Scholar 

  18. Ebstyne King, P., Dowling, E. M., Mueller, R. A., White, K., Schultz, W., Osborn, P., & Scales, P. C. (2005). Thriving in adolescence: The voices of youth-serving practitioners, parents, and early and late adolescents. Journal of Early Adolescence, 25(1), 94–112.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Eccles, J. S., & Gootman, J. (Eds.). (2002). Community programs to promote youth development. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

    Google Scholar 

  20. Evans-Winters, V. (2011). Teaching black girls: Resiliency in urban classrooms. New York, NY: Peter Lang.

    Google Scholar 

  21. Few, A. L. (2007). Integrating Black consciousness and critical race feminism into family studies research. Journal of Family Issues, 28(4), 452–473.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. Fine, M. (1992). Disruptive voices: The possibilities of feminist research. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.

    Google Scholar 

  23. Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York, NY: Herder & Herder.

    Google Scholar 

  24. Gaunt, K. (2006). The games Black girls play: Learning the ropes from double-dutch to hip-hop. New York, NY: New York University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  25. Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice: Psychological theory and women’s development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  26. Gilligan, C. (2011). Joining the resistance. Malden, MA: Polity Press.

    Google Scholar 

  27. Harklau, L. (2013). Why Izzie didn’t go to college: Choosing work over college as Latina feminism. Teachers College Record, 115(1), 1–32.

    Google Scholar 

  28. Harper, G. W., Bangi, A. K., Sanchez, B., Doll, M., & Pedraza, A. (2006). Latina adolescents’ sexual health: A participatory empowerment approach. In J. Denner & B. L. Guzmán (Eds.), Latina girls: Voices of adolescent strength in the United States (pp. 141–156). New York, NY: New York University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  29. Harris, A. (2004). All about the girl: Culture, power, and identity. New York, NY: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  30. Harter, S. (1993). Causes and consequences of low self-esteem in children and adolescents. In R. Baumeister (Ed.), Self-esteem: The puzzle of of low self-regard (pp. 87–116). New York, NY: Plenum Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  31. Hooks, B. (2003). The oppositional gaze: Black female spectators. In A. Jones (Ed.), The feminism and visual cultural reader (pp. 94–105). New York, NY: Psychology Press.

    Google Scholar 

  32. Kiang, L., Gonzales-Backen, M., Fuligni, A. J., Yip, T., & Witkow, M. (2006). Ethnic identity and the daily psychological well-being of adolescents from Mexican and Chinese backgrounds. Child Development, 77(5), 1338–1350.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Kumagai, A. K., & Lypson, M. L. (2009). Beyond cultural competence: Critical consciousness, social justice, and multicultural education. Academic Medicine, 84(6), 782–787.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. Ladner, J. (1971). Tomorrow’s tomorrow. New York: Doubleday.

    Google Scholar 

  35. Leadbeater, B. J. R., & Way, N. (Eds.). (1996). Urban girls: Resisting stereotypes, creating identities. New York, NY: New York University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  36. Leadbeater, B. J. R., & Way, N. (Eds.). (2007). Urban girls revisited: Building strengths. New York, NY: New York University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  37. Lerner, R. M., Almerigi, J. B., Theokas, C., & Lerner, J. V. (2005). Positive youth development: A view of the issues. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 25(1), 10–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. Lerner, R. M., Phelps, E., Alberts, A., Forman, Y., & Christiansen, E. D. (2007). The many faces of urban girls: Features of positive development in early adolescence. In B. J. R. Leadbeater & N. Way (Eds.), Urban girls revisited: Building strengths (pp. 19–52). New York, NY: New York University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  39. Lerner, R. M., Von Eye, A., Lerner, J. V., Lewin-Bizan, S., & Bowers, E. P. (2010). Special issue introduction: The meaning and measurement of thriving: A view of the issues. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 39, 707–719.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. Lopez, N., & Lechuga, C. E. (2007). “They are like a friend”: Other mothers creating empowering, school-based community living rooms in Latina and Latino middle schools. In B. J. R. Leadbeater & N. Way (Eds.), Urban girls revisited: Building strengths (pp. 97–120). New York, NY: New York University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  41. Love, B. L. (2012). Hip hop’s li’l sistas speak: Negotiating hip hop identities and politics in the new south. New York: Peter Lang.

    Google Scholar 

  42. Martinez, R. O., & Dukes, R. L. (1997). The effects of ethnic identity, ethnicity, and gender on adolescent well-being. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 26(5), 503–516.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  43. McLean Taylor, J. M., Gilligan, C., & Sullivan, A. M. (1995). Between voice and silence: Women and girls, race and relationship. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  44. Nakkula, M. J., & Toshalis, E. (2006). Understanding youth: Adolescent development for educators. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.

    Google Scholar 

  45. National Association of Independent Schools. (2013). NAIS Facts at a glance 2012–2013 [Data file]. Retrieved from: http://www.nais.org/Articles/Documents/NAISFactsAtAGlance201213.pdf.

  46. Noguera, P. A. (2008). ‘Joaquin’s dilemma’: Understanding the link between racial identity and school-related behaviors. In M. Sadowski (Ed.), Adolescents at school: Perspectives on youth, identity, and education (pp. 23–34). Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.

    Google Scholar 

  47. Ohye, B. Y., & Daniel, J. H. (1999). The” other” adolescent girls: Who are they? In N. G. Johnson, M. C. Roberts, & J. Worell (Eds.), Beyond appearance: A new look at adolescent girls (pp. 115–129). Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  48. Pastor, J., McCormick, J., Fine, M., Andolsen, R., Friedman, N., Richardson, N., et al. (2007). Makin’ homes: An urban girl thing. In B. J. R. Leadbeater & N. Way (Eds.), Urban girls revisited: Building strengths (pp. 75–96). New York, NY: New York University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  49. Phinney, J. S., Cantu, C. L., & Kurtz, D. A. (1997). Ethnic and American identity as predictors of self-esteem among African American, Latino, and White adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 26(2), 165–185.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  50. Pipher, M. (1994). Reviving Ophelia: Saving the selves of adolescent girls. New York, NY: Penguin Group Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  51. Pope, D. C. (2001). Doing school: How we are creating a generation of stressed out, materialistic, and miseducated students. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  52. Rhodes, J. E., Davis, A. A., Prescott, L. R., & Spencer, R. (2007). Caring connections: Mentoring relationships in the lives of urban girls. In B. J. R. Leadbeater & N. Way (Eds.), Urban girls revisited: Building strengths (pp. 142–156). New York, NY: New York University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  53. Robinson, T., & Ward, J. V. (1991). ‘A belief in self far greater than anyone’s disbelief’: Cultivating resistance among African-American female adolescents. Women and Therapy, 11, 87–103.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. Roth, J. L., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2003). What is a youth development program? Identification and defining principles. In F. Author 2, D. Wertlieb, & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Enhancing the life chances of youth and families: Public service systems and public policy perspectives: Vol. 2 Handbook of applied developmental science: Promoting positive child, adolescent, and family development through research, policies, and programs (pp. 197–223). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

  55. Rowley, S. J., Sellers, R. M., Chavous, T. M., & Smith, M. A. (1998). The relationship between racial identity and self-esteem in African American college and high school students. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 715–724.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Shaffer, A., Coffino, B., Boelcke-Stennes, K., & Masten, A. S. (2007). From urban girls to resilient women. In B. J. R. Leadbeater & N. Way (Eds.), Urban girls revisited: Building strengths (pp. 53–74). New York, NY: New York University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  57. Sherman, F., & Balck, A. (2015). Gender injustice: System-level juvenile justice reform for girls. The National Crittenton Foundation and National Women’s Law Center. http://www.nationalcrittenton.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Gender_Injustice_Report.pdf.

  58. Smith, C., & Carlson, B. E. (1997). Stress, coping, and resilience in children and youth. Social Service Review, 71(2), 231–256.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  59. Spencer, M. B., Dupree, D., & Hartmann, T. (1997). A phenomenological variant of ecological systems theory (PVEST): A self-organization perspective in context. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 817–833.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  60. Suarez-Orozco, C., & Suárez-Orozco, M. M. (1995). Transformations: Immigration, family life, and achievement motivation among Latino adolescents. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  61. Theokas, C., Almerigi, J., Lerner, R. M., Dowling, E. M., Benson, P. L., Scales, P. C., & von Eye, A. (2005). Conceptualizing and modeling individual and ecological asset components of thriving in early adolescence. Journal of Early Adolescence, 25(1), 113–143.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  62. Tuck, E. (2009). Suspending damage: A Letter to communities. Harvard Educational Review, 79(3), 409–428.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  63. Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Diversi, M., & Fine, M. A. (2002). Ethnic identity and self-esteem of Latino adolescents: Distinctions among the Latino populations. Journal of Adolescent Research, 17(3), 303–327.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  64. Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  65. Ward, J. V. (1990). Racial identity formation and transformation. In C. Gilligan, N. Lyons, & T. Hanmer (Eds.), Making connections: The relational worlds of adolescent girls at Emma Willard School (pp. 215–232). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  66. Ward, J. V. (1996). Raising resisters: The role of truth telling in the psychological development of African American girls. In B. J. R. Leadbeater & N. Way (Eds.), Urban girls: Resisting stereotypes, creating identities (pp. 85–99). New York, NY: New York University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  67. Ward, J. V. (2000). The skin we’re in: Teaching our children to be emotionally strong, socially smart, spiritually connected. New York: The Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  68. Ward, J. V. (2007). Uncovering truths, recovering lives: Lessons of resistance in the socialization of Black girls. In B. J. R. Leadbeater & N. Way (Eds.), Urban Girls Revisited: Building Strengths (pp. 243–260). NY: New York University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  69. Way, N. (1995). ‘Can’t you see the courage, the strength that I have?’: Listening to urban adolescent girls speak about their relationships. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 19, 107–128.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  70. Way, N. (1998). Everyday courage: The lives and stories of urban teenagers. New York, NY: New York University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  71. Wing, A. K. (1996). A critical race feminist conceptualization of violence: South African and Palestinian women. Albany Law Review, 60, 943–976.

    Google Scholar 

  72. Wing, A. K. (1997). Brief reflections toward a multiplicative theory and praxis of being. In A. K. Wing (Ed.), Critical race feminism: A reader (pp. 27–34). New York: New York University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  73. Wing, A. K. (2000). Global critical race feminism: An international reader. New York: New York University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  74. Wortham, S., Mortimer, K., & Allard, E. (2009). Mexicans as model minorities in the new Latino diaspora. Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 40(4), 388–404.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  75. Zambrana, R. E., & Zoppi, I. M. (2002). Latina students: Translating cultural wealth into social capital to improve academic success. Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Diversity in Social Work, 11(1–2), 33–53.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Education Culture and Society Division, Graduate School of Education, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA

    Katie Clonan-Roy

  2. Teaching, Learning and Leadership Division, Graduate School of Education, University of Pennsylvania, 3700 Walnut St., Philadelphia, PA, USA

    Charlotte E. Jacobs

  3. Applied Psychology and Human Development Division, Graduate School of Education Chair, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA

    Michael J. Nakkula

Authors
  1. Katie Clonan-Roy
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Charlotte E. Jacobs
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Michael J. Nakkula
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Charlotte E. Jacobs.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Clonan-Roy, K., Jacobs, C.E. & Nakkula, M.J. Towards a Model of Positive Youth Development Specific to Girls of Color: Perspectives on Development, Resilience, and Empowerment. Gend. Issues 33, 96–121 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12147-016-9156-7

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12147-016-9156-7

Keywords

Search

Navigation