Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

The role of psychological distress as a potential route through which procrastination may confer risk for reduced life satisfaction

  • Published:
Current Psychology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Procrastination, mental health problems and decreased life satisfaction among university students constitutes an issue over which there is growing public concern. Yet, there is little research explaining the mechanisms through which academic procrastination may lead to less life satisfaction. The present study aimed to explore the link between procrastination and psychopathology among 2 samples (sample 1, N = 681 and sample 2, N = 183) of Greek University students. We also further tested the assumption that psychological distress would mediate the relationship between procrastination and life satisfaction. Data were analyzed using correlational analyses and structural equation modeling. In the first Study, procrastination was related to psychopathology. In the second study, results revealed that students who had the tendency to procrastinate in general, or their academic obligations, in particular, reported less psychological well-being, more anxiety, more psychological distress, less emotional ties, less general positive affect, more loss of behavioral and emotional control, more depressive symptoms and less life satisfaction. More importantly, the model exhibited a good fit to the data, while the bootstrapped standardized indirect effect of procrastination on life satisfaction was statistically significant supporting the hypothesis that Psychological distress partially mediated the relationship between procrastination and life satisfaction. In conclusion, difficulty to meet deadlines within a specific time-frame is related to worse mental health and decreased overall life satisfaction Academic procrastination, general procrastination, psychopathology, mental health, life satisfaction.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abdulghani, H. M., Alkanhal, A. A., Mahmoud, E. S., Ponnamperuma, G. G., & Alfaris, E. A. (2011). Stress and its effects on medical students: A cross-sectional study at a college of medicine in Saudi Arabia. Journal of Health, Population, and Nutrition, 29(5), 516–522.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Alpert, R., & Haber, R. N. (1960). Anxiety in academic achievement situations. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 61(2), 207–215. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0045464.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Andrews, B., & Wilding, J. M. (2004). The relation of depression and anxiety to life-stress and achievement in students. British Journal of Psychology, 95, 509–521. https://doi.org/10.1348/0007126042369802.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Argiropoulou, M. I., Siatis, A., & Kalantzi-Azizi, A. (2014). Procrastination, mental health & life-satisfaction: The vicious cycles of a fatal relationship. 2nd international conference on time perspective (ICTP). 29th of July to 1st of august, Warsaw, Poland.

  • Baumeister, R. F., & Scher, S. J. (1988). Self-defeating behavior patterns among normal individuals: Review and analysis of common self-destructive tendencies. Psychological Bulletin, 104(1), 3–22. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.104.1.3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baumeister, R. F., Heatherton, T. F., & Tice, D. M. (1994). Losing control: How and why people fail at self-regulation. San Diego: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T., & Steer, R. A. (1993). Beck depression inventory manual. San Antonio: Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bentler, P. M. (1990). Comparative fit indexes in structural models. Psychological Bulletin, 107(2), 238–246. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.107.2.238.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bentler, P. M. (1995). EQS structural equations program manual. Encino: Multiva-riate Software.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bernstein, P. (1998). Against the gods: The remarkable story of risk. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blanchard, K., & Gottry, S. (2004). The on-time, on-target manager. How a last-minute manager conquered procrastination (1st ed.). New York: Harper Collins Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1993). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. In K. A. Bollen & J. S. Long (Eds.), Testing structural equation models (pp. 136–162). Newbury Park: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burka, J. B., & Yuen, L. M. (1983). Procrastination: Why you do it what to do about it. Cambridge: Da Capo Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Caldwell, L. M., & Mowrer, R. R. (1998). The link between procrastination, delay of gratification and life satisfaction: A preliminary analysis. Psi Chi Journal of Undergraduate Research, 3, 145–150.

    Google Scholar 

  • Capan, B. E. (2010). Relationship among perfectionism, academic procrastination and life satisfaction of university students. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 5, 1665–1671.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Constantin, K., English, M. M., & Mazmanian, D. (2018). Anxiety, depression, and procrastination among students: Rumination plays a larger mediating role than worry. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 36(1), 15–27. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10942-017-0271-5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Curtis, R. C. (1989). Integration: Conditions under which self-defeating and self-enhancing behaviours develop. In R. C. Curtis (Ed.), Self-defeating behaviours (pp. 343–361). New York: Plenum Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Depreeuw, E. A. (1984). A profile of the test-anxious student. International Review of Applied Psychology, 33(2), 221–232. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.1984.tb01430.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Depreeuw, E. (1992). On the fear of failure construct: Active and passive test anxious students behave differently. In K. A. Hagtvet & T. B. Johnsen (Eds.), Advances in test anxiety research. Advances in test anxiety research, Vol. 7 (p. 32–46). Swets & Zeitlinger Publishers.

  • Derogatis, L. R. (1975). Brief symptom inventory. Clinical Psychometric Research: Baltimore.

    Google Scholar 

  • Derogatis, L. R., & Cleary, P. A. (1977). Confirmation of the dimensional structure of the SCL-90: A study in construct validation. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 33(4), 981–989.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dessie, Y., Ebrahim, J., & Awoke, T. (2013). Mental distress among university students in Ethiopia: A cross sectional survey. The Pan African Medical Journal, 15, 95. https://doi.org/10.11604/pamj.2013.15.95.2173.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49(1), 71–75. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4901_13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., Suh, E., & Oishi, S. (1997). Recent findings on subjective well-being. Indian Journal of Clinical Psychology, 24(1), 25–41.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., Oishi, S., & Lucas, R. E. (2003). Personality, culture, and subjective well-being: Emotional and cognitive evaluations of life. Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 403–425. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145056.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Durden, C. A. (1997). Life satisfaction as related to procrastination and delay of gratification. Unpublished Master Thesis, Angelo State University, San Angelo, Texas.

  • Eisenberg, D., Gollust, S. E., Golberstein, E., & Hefner, J. L. (2007). Prevalence and correlates of depression, anxiety, and Suicidality Among University students. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 77(4), 534–542. https://doi.org/10.1037/0002-9432.77.4.534.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ferrari, J. R. (1992). Psychometric validations of two procrastination inventories for adults: Arousal and avoidance measures. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 14(2), 97–110.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ferrari, J., & McCown, W. (1994). Procrastination tendencies among obsessive-compulsive and their relatives. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 50, 162–167.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ferrari, J. R., Parker, J. T., & Ware, C. B. (1992). Academic procrastination: Personality correlates with Myers-Briggs types, self-efficacy, and academic locus of control. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 7(3), 495–502.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ferrari, J. R., Johnson, J. & McCown, W. (1995). Procrastination and task avoidance: Theory, research and treatment. The Springer Series in Social Clinical Psychology. p. 268.

  • Ferrari, J. R., Harriott, J. S., & Zimmerman, M. (1999). The social support networks of procrastinators: Friends or family in times of trouble? Personality and Individual Differences, 26(2), 321–331. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(98)00141-X.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harriott, J. S., & Ferrari, J. R. (1996). Prevalence of procrastination among samples of adults. Psychological Reports, 78, 611–616. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1996.78.2.611.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1995). Evaluating model fit. In R. H. Hoyle (Ed.), Structural equation modeling: Concepts, issues and application (pp. 77–99). Thousand Oaks: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • James, I. A., & Kendell, K. (1997). Unfinished processing in the emotional disorders: The Zeigarnik Effect. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 25(4), 329–337.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Joreskog, K. G., & Sorbom, D. (1984). Advances in factor analysis and structural equation models. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kline, R. B. (1998). Methodology in the social sciences. Principles and practice of structural equation modeling: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • König, C. J., & Kleninmann, M. (2004). Business before pleasure: No strategy for procrastinators? Personality and Individual Differences, 37, 1045–1057.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krause, K., & Freund, A. M. (2014). How to beat procrastination: The role of goal focus. European Psychologist, 19(2), 132–144. https://doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040/a000153.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lay, C. H. (1986). At last, my research article on procrastination. Journal of Research in Personality, 20(4), 474–495. https://doi.org/10.1016/0092-6566(86)90127-3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lay, C. H., Edwards, J. M., Parker, J. D., & Endler, N. S. (1989). An assessment of appraisal, anxiety, coping, and procrastination during an examination period. European Journal of Personality, 3(3), 195–208. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2410030305.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCown, W., & Johnson, J. (1991). Personality and chronic procrastination by university students during an academic examination period. Personality and Individual Differences, 12(5), 413–415. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(91)90058-J.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998-2012). Mplus User’s guide: Statistical analysis with latent variables (7th ed.). Los Angeles: Muthén & Muthén.

  • Navrides, K., Dragona, T., Miliarini, B., & Damigos, D. (1990). University of Ioannina Counseling Centre: A transitional place for a transitional age. Ioannina: University of Ioannina.

    Google Scholar 

  • O'Brien, W. K. (2002). Applying the transtheoretical model to academic procrastination. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, 62(11-B), 53–59.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paul, E. J. (2016). The merits of using longitudinal mediation. Educational Psychologist, 51(3–4), 331–341. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2016.1207175.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2004). SPSS and SAS procedures for estimating indirect effects in simple mediation models. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 36, 717–731. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03206553.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Preacher, K. J., Rucker, D. D., & Hayes, A. F. (2007). Addressing moderated mediation hypotheses: Theory, methods, and prescriptions. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 42, 185–227. https://doi.org/10.1080/00273170701341316.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pychyl, T. A., Lee, J. M., Thibodeau, R., & Blunt, A. (2000). Five days of emotion: An experience sampling study of undergraduate student procrastination. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 15(5), 239–254.

    Google Scholar 

  • Saele, R. G., Dahl, T. I., Sorlie, T., & Friborg, O. (2017). Relationships between learning approach, procrastination and academic achievement amongst first-year university students. Higher Education, 74(5), 757–774. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-016-0075-z.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Salmela-Aro, K., & Tynkkynen, L. (2010). Trajectories of life satisfaction across the transition to post-compulsory education: Do adolescents follow different pathways? Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 39(8), 870–881. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-009-9464-2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Samaranayake, C. B., Arroll, B., & Fernando, A. T. (2014). Sleep disorders, depression, anxiety and satisfaction with life among young adults: A survey of university students in Auckland, New Zealand. The New Zealand Medical Journal, 127(1399), 13–22.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scher, S. J., & Osterman, N. M. (2002). Procrastination, conscientiousness, anxiety and goals: Exploring the measurement and correlates of procrastination among school-aged children. Psychology in the Schools, 39(4), 385–398. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.10045.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schraw, G., Wadkins, T., & Olafson, L. (2007). Doing the things we do: A grounded theory of academic procrastination. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99(1), 12–25. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.99.1.12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schumacker, R. E., & Lomax, R. G. (2004). A beginner's guide to structural equation modeling (2nd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

  • Shah, A. S. (2000). Exploring the Worl of English: A practical course in composition. Lahore: Markazi Kutub Khana.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sigall, H., Kruglanski, A., & Fyock, J. (2000). Wishful thinking and procrastination. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 15(5), 283–296.

    Google Scholar 

  • Şirin, E. F. (2011). Academic procrastination among undergraduates attending school of physical education and sports: Role of general procrastination, academic motivation and academic self-efficacy. Educational Research Review, 6(5), 447–455.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sirois, F. M. (2007). “I ‘ll look after my health later”: A replication and extension of the procrastination - health model with community – dwelling adults. Personality and Individual Differences, 43(1), 15–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2006.11.003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sirois, F. M. (2014). Procrastination and stress: Exploring the role of self-compassion. Self and Identity, 13(2), 128–145.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sirois, F. M. (2015). A self-regulation resource model of self-compassion and health behavior intentions in emerging adults. Preventive Medicine Reports, 2, 218–222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmedr.2015.03.006.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Sirois, F. M., Melia-Gordon, M. L., & Pychyl, T. A. (2003). “I ‘ll look after my health, later”: An investigation of procrastination and health. Personality and Individual Differences, 35(5), 1167–1184.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Solomon, L. J., & Rothblum, E. D. (1984). Academic procrastination: Frequency and cognitive-behavioral correlates. Journal of Counselling Psychology, 31(4), 503–509.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stainton, M., Lay, C. H., & Fleet, G. L. (2000). Trait procrastinators and behavior/trait-specific cognitions. In Ferrari, J. R., & Pychyl, T. A. (Eds.). Procrastination: Current issues and new directions [special issue]. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 15(5), 167–184.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stead, R., Shanahan, M. J., & Neufeld, R. W. J. (2010). "I'll go to therapy, eventually": Procrastination, stress and mental health. Personality and Individual Differences, 49, 175–180.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steel, P., Brothen, T., & Wambach, C. (2001). Procrastination and personality, performance, and mood. Personality and Individual Differences, 30, 95–106.

  • Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. Psychological Bulletin, 133, 65–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Swami, V., Chamorro-Premuzic, T., Sinniah, D., Maniam, T., Kannan, K., Stanistreet, D., & Furnham, A. (2007). General health mediates the relationship between loneliness, life satisfaction and depression: A study with Malaysian medical students. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 42(2), 161–166.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tan, C. X., Ang, R. P., Klassen, R. M., Yeo, L. S., Wong, I. Y. F., Huan, V. S., & Chong, W. H. (2008). Correlates of academic procrastination and student’s grade goals. Current Psychology-Research & Reviews, 27(2), 135–144. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-008-9028-8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tice, D. M., & Baumeister, R. F. (1997). Longitudinal study of procrastination, performance, stress and, health: the costs and benefits of dawdling. Psychological Science, 8, 454–458. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1997.tb00460.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tice, D. M., Bratslavsky, E., & Baumeister, R. F. (2001). Emotional distress regulation takes precedence over impulse control: If you feel bad, do it! Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 53–67. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.80.1.53.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ullman, J. B. (2001). Structural equation modeling. In B. G. Tabachnick & L. S. Fidell (Eds.), Using multivariate statistics. Pearson Education: Boston.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Eerde, W. (2000). Procrastination: Self-regulation in initiating aversive goals. Applied Psychology. An International Review, 49(3), 372–389. https://doi.org/10.1111/1464-0597.00021.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Veit, C. T., & Ware, J. E. (1983). The structure of psychological distress and well-being in general populations. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 51(5), 730–742. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.51.5.730.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Xatzidimou, S. (1994). Procrastination in school and academic tasks among students of secondary and tertiary education. Unpublished master’s thesis. National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece [in greek]

  • Εfthimiou, Κ., Εfstathiou, G., & Κalantzi-Azizi. (2007). Epidemiological study of Greek students mental health. Athens: Topos [in greek].

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

Portions of this paper were presented at the 2nd International Conference on Time Perspective (ICTP). In Warsaw, Poland in 2014.

Gratitude is expressed to Andrea Siatis for the use of the data for sample 2 which contributed to his undergraduate dissertation and to Anastasia Kalantzi-Azizi, Emeritus Professor of Clinical Psychology at National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece, Supervisor of the dissertation and Head of the procrastination research program.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Education, School of Education, University of Nicosia, Nicosia, Cyprus

    Argiropoulou Maria-Ioanna

  2. Department of Psychology, University of Ioannina, Ioannina, Greece

    Vlachopanou Patra

Authors
  1. Argiropoulou Maria-Ioanna
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Vlachopanou Patra
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Argiropoulou Maria-Ioanna.

Ethics declarations

Ethics Declarations

On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest. All procedures performed in the current study were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional research committee of the University of Ioannina and with 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

Additional information

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Maria-Ioanna, A., Patra, V. The role of psychological distress as a potential route through which procrastination may confer risk for reduced life satisfaction. Curr Psychol 41, 2860–2867 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-00739-8

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-00739-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation