Abstract
During the last decade, the number of individuals reentering communities as parolees has substantially increased as a result of the growth in the U.S. prison population. Consequently, research on prisoner reentry has also increased. The current study, a qualitative analysis using face to face interviews, examines the parole experiences of 60 women parolees in a Southern state. The women parolees served an average of 7.5 years in a state prison and had been on parole 1–5 years prior to the interviews. The in-depth face to face interviews explored women parolees’ narratives of the challenges encountered in monthly parole reporting, perceptions of parole officers, and the strategies used to sustain their freedom in the community. The women parolees’ narratives were used to illustrate their views of themselves and their experiences as parolees. They identified several critical factors in meeting their monthly parole obligations: transportation, monthly supervision fees, urinalysis tests, staying away from drugs, and positive rapport with their assigned parole officer. Women perceived their status as parolees as a way to hold them accountable for daily decisions and life choices.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Arditti, J. A., & Few, A. (2006). Mothers’ reentry into family life following incarceration. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 17, 103–123.
Bahr, S. J., Armstrong, A. H., Gibbs, B. G., Harris, P. E., & Fisher, J. K. (2005). The reentry process: How parolees adjust to release from prison. Fathering, 3(3), 243–265.
Benda, B. B. (2005). Gender differences in life-course theory of recidivism: A survival analysis. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 49, 325–342.
Belknap, J., & Holsinger, K. (2006). The gendered nature of risk factors for delinquency. Feminist Criminology, 1, 48–71.
Berg, M. T., & Huebner, B. M. (2011). Reentry and the ties that bind: An examination of social ties, employment, and recidivism. Justice Quarterly, 28(2), 382–410.
Berman, J. (2005). Women offender transition and reentry: Gender responsive approaches to transitional women offenders from prison to the community. Washington, DC: National Institute of Corrections.
Bloom, B., Owen, B., & Covington, S. (2003). Gender responsive strategies: Research, Practice, and Guiding Principles for women offenders. Washington: National Institute of Corrections. available online at www.nicic.org/Library/018017.
Breese, J. R., Ra’el, K., & Grant, G. K. (2000). No place like home: A qualitative investigation of social support and its effects on recidivism. Sociological Practice: A Journal of Clinical and Applied Research, 2(1), 1–21.
Bui, H., & Morash, M. (2010). The impact of network relationships, prison experiences, and internal transformation on women’s success after prison release. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 49, 1–22.
Bushway, S. D., & Apel, R. (2012). A signaling perspective on employment-based reentry programming: Training completion as a desistance signal. Criminology & Public Police, 11.
Carlson, E. A., & Golinelii, D. (2013). Prisoners in 2012 – Advance counts. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Carlson, E. A., & Sabol, W. J. (2012). Prisoners in 2011. Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Chesney-Lind, M. (1997). The female offender: Girls, women and crime. Thousand Oakes: Sage.
Chesney-Lind, M., & Pasko, L. (2004). The female offender: Girls, women, and crime. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publication.
Cobbina, J. (2010). Reintegration success and failure: Factors impacting reintegration among incarcerated and formerly incarcerated women. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 49, 210–232.
Covington, S. (2003). A woman’s journey home: Challenges for female offenders. In J. Travis & M. Waul (Eds.), Prisoners once removed: The impact of incarceration and reentry on children, families, and communities (pp. 67–103). Washington, DC: The Urban Institute Press.
Covington, S., & Surrey, J. (1997). The relational model of women’s psychological development: Implications of substance abuse. In R. W. Wilsnack & S. C. Wilsnack (Eds.), Gender and alcohol: Individual and social perspectives (pp. 335–351). New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
Daly, K. (1998). Gender, crime, and criminology. In M. Tonry (Ed.), The handbook of crime and justice (pp. 85–108). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
DeHart, D. (2000). Pathways to prison: Impact of victimization in the lives of incarcerated women. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice.
Dodge, M., & Pogrebin, M. R. (2001). Collateral costs of imprisonment for women: Complications of reintegration. Prison Journal, 81, 42–54.
Emerson, R. (1983). Contemporary field research. Boston: Little Brown.
Flesaker, K., & Larsen, D. (2010). To offer hope you must have hope: Accounts of home for reintegration counselors working with women on probation and parole. Qualitative Social Work, 11, 61–79.
Fazel, S., Bains, P., & Doll, H. (2006). Substance abuse and dependence in prisoners: A systematic review. Addiction, 101, 181–191.
Fedock, G., Fries, L., & Kubiak, S. (2013). Service needs for incarcerated adults: Exploring gender differences. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 52, 493–508.
Garland, B., Wodahl, E., & Mayfield, J. (2010). Prisoner reentry in a small metropolitan community: Obstacles and policy recommendations. Criminal Justice Policy and Procedures, 22(1), 90–110.
Geiger, B., & Fischer, M. (2003). Female repeat offenders negotiating identity. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 47, 496–515.
Gideon, L. (2009). What shall I do now: Released offenders’ expectations for supervision upon release. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 53, 43–46.
Giordano, P., Cernkovich, S., & Rudolph, J. (2002). Gender, crime, and desistance: Toward a theory of cognitive transformation. American Journal of Sociology, 107, 990–1064.
Glaser, B., & Strauss, A. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research. Hawthorne: Aldine de Gruyter.
Greenfield, S., Brooks, A., Gordon, S., Green, C., Kropp, F., McHugh, K., et al. (2007). Substance abuse treatment entry, retention and outcome on women: A review of the literature. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 86, 1–24.
Greenfeld, L. A., & Shell, T. L. (1999). Women offenders. Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Gunnison, E., & Helfgott, J. (2007). Factors that hinder offender reentry success: A view from community corrections Officers. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 55, 287–304.
Hall, E., Baldwin, D., & Prendergast, M. (2001). Women on parole: Barriers to success after substance abuse treatment. Human Organization, 60, 225–233.
Harm, N. J., & Phillips, S. D. (2001). You can’t go home again: Women and criminal recidivism. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 32, 3–21.
Holtfreter, K. L., & Morash, M. (2003). The needs of women offenders: Implications for correctional programming. Women and Criminal Justice, 14, 137–160.
Huebner, B., DeJong, C., & Cobbina, J. (2010). Women coming home: Long-term patterns of recidivism, 27, 225–254.
Kennealy, P. J., Skeem, J. L., Manchak, S., & Louden, J. E. (2012). Firm, fair, and caring officer-offender relationships protect against supervision failure. Law and Human Behavior, 36(6), 496–505.
Kruttschnitt, C., & Gartner, R. (2003). Women’s imprisonment. In M. Tonry (Ed.), Crime and justice: A review of research (Vol. 30, pp. 1–82). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Langan, P., & Levin, D. (2002). Recidivism of prisoners released in 1994. (No. NCJ 193427). Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, U. S. Department of Justice.
Langan, N., & Pelissier, M. (2001). Gender differences among prisoners in drug treatment. Journal of Substance Abuse, 13, 291–301.
Latessa, E. (2012). Why work is important, and how to improve the effectiveness of correctional reentry programs that target employment. Criminology and Public Policy, 11, 87–91.
Lattimore, P., & Visher, C. (2009). The multi-site evaluation of SVORI: Summary and synthesis. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
La Vigne, N., Brooks, L. E., & Shollenberger, T. L. (2009). Women on the outside: Understanding the experiences of female prisoners returning to Houston, Texas. Washington, D.C.: The Urban Institute.
La Vigne, N., Visher, C., & Castro, J. (2004). Chicago prisoners’ experience return home. Washington, DC: Urban Institute.
La Vigne, N., Wolf, S., & Jannetta, J. (2004). Voices of experience: Focus group findings on prisoner reeentry in the State of Rhode Island. Washington, DC: The Urban Institute.
Leverentz, A. (2010). Being a good daughter and sister: Families of origin in the reentry of African American female ex-prisoners. Feminist Criminology, 6, 239–267.
Maidment, M. (2006). Doing time on the outside: Deconstructing the benevolent community. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
Mallik-Kane, K., & Visher, C. (2008). Health and prisoner reentry: How physical, mental, and substance abuse conditions shape the process of reintegration. Washington, DC: The Urban Institute.
Marlow, E., White, M., & Chelsa, C. (2010). Barriers and facilitators: parolees’ perceptions of community health care. Journal of Correctional Health Care, 16, 17–26.
Martinez, D. J., & Christian, J. (2009). The familial relationships of former prisoners examining the link between residence and informal support mechanism. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 38, 201–224.
Maruna, S. (2010). Reentry as a rite of passage. Punishment and Society, 13, 3–28.
Maruschak, L., Glaze, L., & Bonczar, T. (2013). Adults on parole in the United States, 1975-2012. Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Mclvor, G., Trotter, C., & Sheehan, R. (2009). Women, resettlement, and desistance. Probation Journal, 56(4), 347–361.
Mears, D. P., & Barnes, J. (2010). Toward a systematic foundation for identifying evidence-based criminal justice sanctions and their relative effectiveness. Journal of Criminal Justice, 38, 702–810.
Mears, D. P., & Mestre, J. (2012). Prisoner reentry, employment, signaling, and the better identification of desisters. Criminology & Public Policy, 11, 5–15.
Mears, D. P., Cochan, J., & Bales, W. (2012). Gender differences in the effects of prison on recidivism. Journal of Criminal Justice, 40, 370–378.
Metraux, S., & Culhane, D. (2006). Recent incarceration history among a sheltered homeless population. Crime & Delinquency, 52, 504–517.
Miller, S., & Hefner, K. (2013). Procedural justice for victims and offenders? Exploring restorative justice processes in Australia and the United States. Justice Quarterly, 32, 142–167.
Morash, M. (2010). Women on probation on and parole: A feminist critique of community programs and services. Lebanon, NH: Northeastern University Press.
O’Brien, P. (2001). Just like baking a cake: Women describe the necessary ingredients for successful reentry. Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Social Services, 82, 287–295.
O’Brien, P. (2006). The context of women’s imprisonmen. In A. Merlo & J. M. Pollock (Eds.), Women, law, and social control (pp. 251–267). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Opsal, T. (2009). Women on parole: Understanding the impact of surveillance. Women and Criminal Justice, 19, 306–328.
Opsal, T. (2011). Women disrupting a marginalized identity: Subverting the parolee identity through narrative. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 30, 1–33.
Opsal, T. (2014). “Its their world, so you've just got to get through”: Women's experiences of parole governance. Feminist Criminology. doi:10.1177/1557085114539723.
Owen, B. (1998). In the mix: Struggle and survival in a women’s prison. Albany: State University of New York.
Petersilia, J. (2003). When prisoners come home: Parole and prisoner reentry. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Richie, B. (2001). Challenges incarcerated women faces as they return to their communities: Findings from life history interviews. Crime and Delinquency, 47, 368–389.
Scroggins, J. R., & Malley, S. (2010). Reentry and the (unmet) needs of women. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 49, 146–163.
Seng, M., & Lurigio, A. (2005). Probation officers’ views of supervising women probationers. Women and Criminal Justice, 16, 65–85.
Seiter, R. (2002). Prison reentry and the role of parole officers. Federal Probation, 66, 50–54.
Severance, T. (2004). Concern and coping strategies of women inmates concerning release: “It’s going to take somebody in my corner.”. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 38, 73–97.
Shapiro, C., & Schwartz, M. (2001). Coming home: Building on family connections. Corrections Management Quarterly, 5(3), 52–61.
Skeem, J., Louden, E., Polascheck, D., & Camp, J. (2007). Assessing relationship quality in mandated community treatment: Blending care with control.”. Psychological Assessment, 19, 397–410.
Steiner, B., Hester, R., Makarios, M., & Travis, L. (2012). Examining the link between parole officers’ bases of power and their exercise of power. The Prison Journal, 92(4), 435–459.
Sullivan, E., Mino, M., Nelson, J., & Pope, J. (2002). Families as a resource in recovery from drug abuse: An evaluation of la bodega de la familia. New York: The Vera Institute.
Taxman, F., Young, D., & James, B. (2003). Offender’s view of reentry: Implications for processes, programs, and services. College Park, MD: Bureau of Government Research. Available at http://www.bgr.umd.edu.
Taylor, S. J., & Bogdan, R. (1998). Introduction in qualitative research methods: A guidebook and resource (3rd ed.). New York: Wiley.
Turnbull, S., & Hannah-Moffat, K. (2009). Under these conditions: Gender, parole, and governance of reintegration. British Journal of Criminology. doi:10.1093/bjc/azpo15.
Travis, J. (2005). But they all come back: Facing the challenges of prisoner reentry. Washington, DC: Urban Institute.
Uggen, C., & Kruttschnitt, C. (1998). Crime in the breaking: Gender differences in desistance. Law and Society Review, 32, 33–366.
Visher, C. A., & Travis, J. (2001). Life on the outside: Returning home after incarceration. The Prison Journal, 9, 1025–1195.
Werth, R. (2012). I do what I’m told, sort of: Reformed subjects, unruly citizens, and parole. Theoretical Criminology, 16, 329–346.
Acknowledgments
The author wishes to thank the State of Alabama Board of Pardons and Parole, District Managers, and Parole Supervisors for providing access to the women parolees, an interview space, and meaningful discussions. The views reflected in the paper represent the views of the author and not necessarily the views of the Alabama Board of Pardons and Parole.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Johnson, I.M. Women Parolees’ Perceptions of Parole Experiences and Parole Officers. Am J Crim Just 40, 785–810 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-014-9284-0
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-014-9284-0