Abstract
Upper gastrointestinal disease induced by use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) remains a major problem that affects a broad segment of the population, given the frequent use of these drugs by prescription and over the counter. The emergence of the cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 selective inhibitors (coxibs) has introduced a new option that may result in less upper gastrointestinal disease. Recent large studies have demonstrated this advantage, with the caveat that concurrent use of low-dose aspirin may mitigate this benefit. Unfortunately, the relatively high cost of the coxibs makes them not cost-effective unless confined to certain higher-risk populations. Finally, even newer versions of NSAIDs, such as nitric oxide (NO)-releasing aspirin and the COX-inhibiting NO donors, are potential alternatives to traditional NSAIDs with less upper gastrointestinal toxicity.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Peterson WL, Cryer B: Cox-1-sparing NSAIDs: Is the enthusiasm justified? JAMA 1999, 282:1961–3.
Bombardier C, Laine L, Reicin A: Comparison of upper gastrointestinal toxicity of rofecoxib and naproxen in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. N Engl J Med 2000, 343:1520–1528.
Hawkey C, Laine L, Simon T: Comparison of the effect of rofecoxib (a cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor), ibuprofen, and placebo on the gastroduodenal mucosa of patients with osteoarthritis. Arthritis Rheum 2000, 43:370–377.
Hayden M, Pignone M, Phillips C, et al.: Aspirin for the primary prevention of cardiovascular events: a summary of the evidence for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med 2002, 136:161–172.
Cryer B, Feldman M: Effects of very low dose daily, long-term aspirin therapy on gastric, duodenal, and rectal prostaglandin levels and on mucosal injury in healthy humans. Gastroenterology 1999, 117:17–25.
Sorenson HT, Mellemkjaer L, Blot WJ, et al.: Risk of upper gastrointestinal bleeding associated with use of low-dose aspirin. Am J Gastroenterol 2000, 95:2218–2224.
Laine L, Harper S, Simon T, et al.: A randomized trial comparing the effect of rofecoxib, a cyclooxygenase 2-specific inhibitor, with that of ibuprofen on the gastroduodenal mucosa of patients with osteoarthritis. Gastroenterology 1999, 117:776–783.
Simon LS, Weaver AL, Graham DY, et al.: Anti-inflammatory and upper gastrointestinal effects of celecoxib in rheumatoid arthritis. JAMA 1999, 282:1921–1928.
Bombardier C, Laine L, Reicin A, et al.: The VIGOR Study Group. Comparison of upper gastrointestinal toxicity of rofecoxib and naproxen in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. N Engl J Med 2000, 343:1520–1528.
Silverstein FE, Faich G, Goldstein JL, et al.: Gastrointestinal toxicity with celecoxib versus nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs for osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis, the CLASS study: a randomized controlled trial. Celecoxib Longterm Arthritis Safety Study. JAMA 2000, 284:1247–1255.
Laine L, Bombardier C, Hawkey CJ, et al.: Stratifying the risk of NSAID-related upper gastrointestinal clinical events: results of a double-blind outcomes study in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Gastroenterology 2002, 123:1006–1012. Providing further analysis of the VIGOR data from 2000, this study identified various risks for upper gastrointestinal events in patients taking nonselective NSAIDs. Coxibs appeared to reduce the number of events regardless of a patient’s level or number of risk factors, though the NNT was smallest in patients at highest risk.
Bjarnason I, Takeuchi K, Simpson R: NSAIDs: the Emperor’s new dogma? Gut 2003, 52:1376–1378.
Sigthorsson G, Simpson RJ, Walley M, et al.: COX-1 and 2, intestinal integrity and pathogenesis of NSAID-enteropathy in mice. Gastroenterology 2002, 122:1913–1923.
Hunt RH, Harper S, Watson DJ, et al.: The gastrointestinal safety of the COX-2 selective inhibitor etoricoxib assessed by both endoscopy and analysis of upper gastrointestinal events. Am J Gastroenterol 2003, 98:1725–1733. This randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial showed the superiority of etoricoxib over naproxen in reducing the cumulative incidence of endoscopically confirmed ulcers. The authors also performed combined analysis of 10 phase II/III trials, finding a relative risk favorable for etoricoxib over naproxen. This paper elegantly combines the two common techniques—endoscopy and clinical event reporting—to compare the safety of coxibs versus NSAIDs.
Rahme E, Bardou M, Dasgupta K, et al.: Gastrointestinal effects of rofecoxib and celecoxib versus NSAIDs among patients on low dose aspirin. Gastroenterology 2004, 126:A–1-A-2.
Arthritis Pain Society: Guidelines for the Management of Pain in Osteoarthritis, Rheumatoid Arthritis, and Juvenile Chronic Arthritis. Baltimore, MD: APS; 2002.
Laine L: Approaches to NSAID use in the high-risk patient. Gastroenterology 2001, 120:594–606.
Singh G: Recent considerations in nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory gastropathy. Am J Med 1998, 105:31S-38S.
Goldstein JL, Zhao SZ, Burke TA, et al.: Incidence of outpatient physician claims for upper gastrointestinal symptoms among new users of celecoxib, ibuprofen, and naproxen in an insured population in the United States. Am J Gastroenterol 2003, 98:2627–2634.
Spiegel BMR, Targownik L, Dulai GS, et al.: The cost-effectiveness of cyclooxygenase-2 selective inhibitors in the management of chronic arthritis. Ann Intern Med 2003, 138:795–806. Large cost-utility analysis that raised serious doubts about the costeffectiveness of coxibs in average-risk patients. Despite benefits gained in reduced gastrointestinal events and complications with coxibs, the cost of coxibs resulted in an unfavorable cost-benefit result. The authors concluded that the cost of each coxib pill would need to be reduced by 90% for a cost benefit to be seen.
Laine L, Wogen J, Yu H: Gastrointestinal health care resource utilization with chronic use of cox-2 specific inhibitors versus traditional NSAIDs. Gastroenterology 2003, 125:389–395.
Hawkey CJ, Karrasch JA, Szczepanski L, et al.: Omeprazole compared with misoprostol for ulcers associated with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. N Engl J Med 1998, 338:727–734.
Yeomans ND, Tulassay Z, Juhasz L, et al. for the Acid Suppression Trial: Ranitidine versus Omeprazole for NSAIDAssociated Ulcer Treatment (ASTRONAUT) Study Group: A comparison of omeprazole with ranitidine for ulcers associated with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. N Engl J Med 1998, 338:719–726.
Serrano P, Lanas A, Arroyo MT, et al.: Risk of upper gastrointestinal bleeding in patients taking low-dose aspirin for the prevention of cardiovascular diseases. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2002, 16:1945–1953.
Lanas A, Rodrigo L, Marquez JL: Low frequency of upper gastrointestinal complications in a cohort of high-risk patients taking low-dose aspirin or NSAIDs and omeprazole. Scand J Gastroenterol 2003 38:693–700.
Sturkenboom MCJM, Burke TA, Tangelder MJD, et al.: Adherence to proton pump inhibitors or H2-receptor antagonists during the use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Aliment Pharmarcol Ther 2003, 18:1137–1147. Retrospective, observational cohort study of 784 patients on either PPIs or H2RAs showing that more than one third of patients were not adherent to their prescribed gastroprotective regimen. Nonadherence rates were higher among patients who filled more NSAID prescriptions. Physicians were found to prescribe gastroprotective agents at an inappropriately low dose at a surprisingly high rate as well.
Sturkenboom MCJM, Burke TA, Dieleman JP, et al.:Underutilization of preventive strategies in patients receiving NSAIDs. Rheumatology 2003, 42(Suppl 3):iii23-iii31.
Goldstein JL, Johanson J, Hawkey CJ, et al.: The comparative healing of gastric ulcers with esomeprazole versus ranitidine in patients taking either continuous cox-2 selective NSAIDs or non-selective NSAIDs. Gastroenterology 2004, 126:A-610.
Scheiman JM, Vakil N, Hawkey CJ, et al.: Esomeprazole prevents gastric and duodenal ulcers in at-risk patients on continuous non-selective or cox-2 selective NSAID therapy. Gastroenterology 2004, 126:A-82.
Fiorucci S, Santucci L, Gresele P, et al.: Gastrointestinal safety of NO-aspirin (NCX-4016) in healthy human volunteers: a proof of concept endoscopic study. Gastroenterology 2003, 124:600–607. Proof of concept, short-term (10-day) study that showed no difference in endoscopically confirmed erosions or ulcers between NO-aspirin and placebo, in contrast to the aspirin group, in which every subject had some visible injury. Meanwhile, NO-aspirin and regular aspirin resulted in similar levels of arachidonic acid inhibition and serum salicylate levels.
Mann NS: No-Aspirin (NCX 4016). Gastroenterology 2003, 125:1918–1919.
Hawkey CJ, Jones JI, Atherton CT, et al.: Gastrointestinal safety of AZD3582, a cyclooxygenase inhibiting nitric oxide donator: proof of concept study in humans. Gut 2003, 52:1537–1542.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Chang, S.Y., Howden, C.W. Is no NSAID a good NSAID? approaches to NSAID-associated upper gastrointestinal disease. Curr Gastroenterol Rep 6, 447–453 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11894-004-0066-6
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11894-004-0066-6