Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Images of mathematicians: a new perspective on the shortage of women in mathematical careers

  • Original Article
  • Published:
ZDM Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Though women earn nearly half of the mathematics baccalaureate degrees in the United States, they make up a much smaller percentage of those pursuing advanced degrees in mathematics and those entering mathematics-related careers. Through semi-structured interviews, this study took a qualitative look at the beliefs held by five undergraduate women mathematics students about themselves and about mathematicians. The findings of this study suggest that these women held stereotypical beliefs about mathematicians, describing them to be exceptionally intelligent, obsessed with mathematics, and socially inept. Furthermore, each of these women held the firm belief that they do not exhibit at least one of these traits, the first one being unattainable and the latter two being undesirable. The results of this study suggest that although many women are earning undergraduate degrees in mathematics, their beliefs about mathematicians may be preventing them from identifying as one and choosing to pursue mathematical careers.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Note that 57% of the total bachelor’s degrees earned during this time span were earned by women, so this number appears more equitable than it is (NCES, 2001–2005).

  2. For the definition of mathematics-based careers, I am using the National Science Foundation’s definition of mathematical scientist as defined by the National Survey of Recent College Graduates (NSF, 2006). An occupation as a “Mathematical Scientist” includes: actuaries, mathematicians, operations research analysts, statisticians, technologists/technicians in the mathematical sciences, and other mathematical scientists, including postsecondary professors of mathematics or statistics.

  3. Dana is referring to the room the interview was conducted in. This room was a deserted office that had a bookshelf full of books, a table with two chairs, and some cardboard boxes on the floor. There was a chalkboard hanging on one wall. There was nothing else in the room.

  4. Despite her change of degree, I found it relevant to include Dana in this analysis because many of the stereotypes of scientists are similar to those of mathematicians (Finson, Beaver, & Cramond, 1995; Huber & Burton, 1995).

  5. Dana was engaged to be married a few months after the interview took place.

  6. The other two categories that students placed in were career-oriented and career/marriage-oriented.

  7. It is important to point out, however, that Kerpelman and Schvaneveldt (1999) noted large variance within gender groups and caution against making sweeping generalizations about each gender.

  8. Intensive mothering expectations include “self-sacrifice, a child-centered mom-identity, omnipresent accessibility, and mothers as the primary source of education, guidance and emotional sustenance” (Johnston & Swanson, 2007, pp. 453–454).

References

  • Adhikari, A., Nolan, D., Chunawala, L., Heising, A., & Woon, I. (1997). A view of mathematics from an undergraduate perspective. In D. Nolan (Ed.), Women in mathematics: Scaling the heights (pp. 17–23). Washington, D.C: Mathematical Association of America.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bartholomew, C., & Schnorr, D. (1994). Gender equity: Suggestions for broadening career options of female students. The School Counselor, 41(4), 245–255.

    Google Scholar 

  • Becker, J. (1990). Graduate education in the mathematical sciences: Factors influencing women and men. In L. Burton (Ed.), Gender and mathematics: An international perspective (pp. 119–130). London: Cassell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Becker, J. (1995). Women’s ways of knowing in mathematics. In P. Rogers & G. Kaiser (Eds.), Equity in Mathematics Education: Influences of Feminism and Culture (pp. 163–174). London: The Falmer Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Becker, J. (2003). Gender and mathematics: An issue for the twenty-first century. Teaching Children Mathematics, 9(8), 470–473.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boaler, J. (2002). Paying the price for “sugar and spice”: Shifting the analytical lens in equity research. Mathematical Thinking and Learning, 4(2 & 3), 127–144

    Google Scholar 

  • BLS (Bureau of Labor Statistics). (2005). Employment status of the civilian noninstitutional population 25 to 64 years of age by educational attainment and sex, 2004 annual averages. Available online at: http://www.bls.gov/cps/wlf-table8-2005.pdf. Accessed January 2008.

  • Carlone, H., & Johnson, A. (2007). Understanding the science experiences of successful women of color: Science identity as an analytic lens. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 44(8), 1187–1218.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clarkson, P. (1993). Gender, ethnicity, and textbooks. The Australian Mathematics Teacher, 49, 14–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Damarin, S. (2000). The mathematically able as a marked category. Gender and Education, 12(1), 69–85.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Damarin, S. (1995). Gender and mathematics from a feminist standpoint. In W. G. Secada, E. Fennema & L. B. Adajian (Eds.), New Directions for Equity in Mathematics Education (pp. 242–257). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davenport, L. (1997). Promoting interest in mathematical careers among girls and women. Wisconsin Teacher of Mathematics, 48(2), 10–15.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, Z. (1997). Gender and mathematical ability: a semiotic reading of a South African primary school textbook. Philosophy of Mathematics Education Journal, 10, 64–76.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeHaven, M., & Wiest, L. (2003). Impact of a girls mathematics and technology program on middle school girls’ attitudes toward mathematics. The Mathematics Educator, 13(2), 32–37.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elgar, A. (2004). Science textbooks for lower secondary schools in Brunei: issues of gender equity. International Journal of Science Education, 26(7), 875–894.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Field, A., Cheung, L., Wolf, A., Herzog, D., Gortmaker, S., & Colditz, G. (1999). Exposure to the mass media and weight concerns among girls. Pediatrics, 103(3), e36.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Finson, K., Beaver, J., & Cramond, B. (1995). Development and field test of a checklist for the draw-a-scientist test. School Science and Mathematics, 95(4), 195–205.

    Google Scholar 

  • Forgasz, H., Leder, G., & Gardner, P. (1999). The Fennema-Sherman mathematics as a male domain scale reexamined. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 30(3), 342–348.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Forgasz, H., Leder, G., & Kaur, B. (1999). Who can(‘t) do maths—boys/girls? An international comparison. Paper presented at the combined Annual Meeting of the Australian Association for Research in Education and the New Zealand Association for Research in Education, Melbourne, Australia, November 29–December 2, 1999. ED453069.

  • Forgasz, H., Leder, G., & Kloosterman, P. (2004). New perspectives on the gender stereotyping of mathematics. Mathematical Thinking and Learning, 6(4), 389–420.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Forgasz, H. & Mittelberg, D. (2008). Gendered beliefs about mathematics among Australian and Israeli grade 9 students. In: Proceedings of the AARE 2007 international educational research conference, http://www.aare.edu.au/07pap/for07212.pdf

  • Fox, L., & Soller, J. (2001). Psychosocial dimensions of gender differences in mathematics. In J. E. Jacobs, J. R. Becker & G. F. Gilmer (Eds.), Changing the Faces of Mathematics (pp. 9–24). Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gee, J. (2000–2001). Identity as an analytic lens for research in education. Review of Research in Education, 25:99–125

    Google Scholar 

  • Gordon, C., & Keyfitz, B. (2004). Women in academia: Are we asking the right questions? Notices of the American Mathematical Society, 51(7), 784–786.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guest, A., & Schneider, B. (2008). Adolescents’ extracurricular participation in context. In J. Ballantine & J. Spade (Eds.), Schools and Society: A Sociological Approach to Education (pp. 45–61). Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gupta, M. (2005). Summer program for women undergraduates. Notices of the American Mathematical Society, 52(3), 355.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hale, M. (2003). Essentials of Mathematics: Introduction to Theory, Proof, and the Professional Culture. Washington, DC: The Mathematical Association of America.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hargreaves, M., Homer, M., & Swinnerton, B. (2008). A comparison of performance and attitudes in mathematics amongst the ‘gifted’. Are boys better at mathematics or do they just think they are? Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, 15(1), 19–38.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Herzig, A. (2004). ‘Slaughtering this beautiful math’: Graduate women choosing and leaving mathematics. Gender and Education, 16(3), 379–395.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huber, R., & Burton, G. (1995). What do students think scientists look like? School Science and Mathematics, 95(7), 371–376.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes, W. J. (2000). Perceived gender interaction and course confidence among undergraduate science, mathematics, and technology majors. Journal of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering, 6, 155–167.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnston, D., & Swanson, D. (2007). Cognitive acrobatics in the construction of worker-mother identity. Sex Roles, 57, 447–459.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, L., & Smart, T. (1995). Confidence and mathematics: A gender issue? Gender and Education, 7(2), 157–166.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kerpelman, J., & Schvaneveldt, P. (1999). Young adults’ anticipated identity importance of career, marital, and parental roles: Comparisons of men and women with different role balance orientations. Sex Roles, 41(3/4), 189–217.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leder, G. & Forgasz, H. (2002). Two new instruments to probe attitude about gender and mathematics. ERIC, Resources in Education (RIE), ED463312.

  • NCES (National Center for Education Statistics). (2001–2005). Digest of education statistics, 2000–2004. Available online at: http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/. Accessed August 2006.

  • NSF (National Science Foundation). (2004). Employed bachelor’s or higher degree recipients, by occupation, sex, race/ethnicity, country of birth, and disability status: 2000. Available online at: www.nsf.gov/sbe/srs/wmpd/employ.htm. Accessed May 2005.

  • NSF (National Science Foundation). (2006). Characteristics of Recent Science and Engineering Graduates: 2003, Available online at: http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/nsf06329/. Accessed February 2008.

  • Picker, S., & Berry, J. (2000). Investigating pupils’ images of mathematicians. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 43(1), 65–94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Picker, S., & Berry, J. (2001). Your students’ images of mathematicians and mathematics. Mathematics Teaching in the Middle School, 7(4), 202–208.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pronin, E., Steele, C., & Ross, L. (2004). Identity bifurcation in response to stereotype threat: Women and mathematics. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40, 152–168.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Quinn, D., & Spencer, S. (2001). The interference of stereotype threat with women’s generation of mathematical problem-solving strategies. Journal of Social Issues, 57(1), 55–71.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raty, H., Vanska, J., Kasanen, K., & Karkkainen, R. (2002). Parents’ explanations of their child’s performance in mathematics and reading: A replication and extension of Yee and Eccles. Sex Roles, 46(3/4), 121–128.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Riehl, C. (2008). Bridges to the future: Contributions of qualitative research to the sociology of education. In J. Ballantine & J. Spade (Eds.), Schools and society: A sociological approach to education (pp. 45–61). Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rossman, G., & Rallis, S. (1998). Learning in the field: An introduction to qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sadker, M., & Sadker, D. (1994). Failing at fairness: How our schools cheat girls. New York, NY: Touchstone.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seegers, G., & Boekaerts, M. (1996). Gender-related differences in self-referenced cognitions in relation to mathematics. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 27(2), 215–240.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sharpe, N., & Sonnert, G. (1999). Proportions of women faculty and students in the mathematical sciences: A trend analysis by institutional group. Journal of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering, 5(1), 17–27.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spelke, E. (2005). Sex differences in intrinsic aptitude for mathematics and science? American Psychologist, 60(9), 950–958.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spencer, S., Steele, C., & Quinn, D. (1999). Stereotype threat and women’s math performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35, 4–28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stokes, H., & Wyn, J. (2007). Constructing identities and making careers: young people’s perspectives on work and learning. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 26(5), 495–511.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1998). Basics of qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • The Chronicle of Higher Education. (2006). The nation: Earned degrees conferred 2001–2, 21(1), 22.

  • Tiedemann, J. (2002). Teachers’ gender stereotypes as determinants of teacher perceptions in elementary school mathematics. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 50(1), 49–62.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Walkerdine, V. (1998). Counting girls out: Girls and mathematics. Bristol, PA: Falmer, Taylor and Francis, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wallon, G. (2005). Aptitude or attitude? European Molecular Biology Organization reports, 6(5), 400–402.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wiest, L. (2004). The critical role of an informal mathematics program for girls. Copenhagen, Denmark: Paper presented at: The 10th International Congress on Mathematical Education.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wyer, M. (2003). Intending to stay: Images of scientists, attitudes toward women, and gender as influences on persistence among science and engineering majors. Journal of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering, 9(1), 1–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zelden, A., & Pajares, F. (2000). Against the odds: self-efficacy beliefs of women in mathematical, scientific, and technological careers. American Educational Research Journal, 37(1), 215–246.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Central Michigan University, Mount Pleasant, MI, USA

    Katrina Piatek-Jimenez

Authors
  1. Katrina Piatek-Jimenez
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Katrina Piatek-Jimenez.

Appendix A: Questions used to guide the interviews

Appendix A: Questions used to guide the interviews

  1. 1.

    What is your major? Why did you choose this major? Do you have a minor?

  2. 2.

    Has this been your major since the beginning of your college career?

  3. 3.

    What year are you in school? When do you plan to graduate?

  4. 4.

    What do you plan to do after you graduate?

  5. 5.

    What do your family members do for a living?

  6. 6.

    Are any external forces (such as parents, spouse, friends) affecting your decision about your major? What about your post-graduation plans?

  7. 7.

    Where did you grow up?

  8. 8.

    When did you first become interested in mathematics? How did this come about?

  9. 9.

    Tell me a little about your mathematics experience in elementary school, in middle school, in high school.

  10. 10.

    Tell me about a good mathematics experience that you have had.

  11. 11.

    Is there another one you would like to share?

  12. 12.

    Tell me about a not-so-good mathematics experience you had.

  13. 13.

    Is there another one you would like to share?

  14. 14.

    What math classes (and other math-related classes) have you taken so far at the university level? Tell me a little about them. (Which was favorite? Least favorite?)

  15. 15.

    Have you ever seen or been asked to construct proofs before this class?

  16. 16.

    How do you feel about this class so far this semester? Has it changed since the beginning of the semester?

  17. 17.

    What expectations did you have coming into the course?

  18. 18.

    Is the course easier or more difficult than you expected? How?

  19. 19.

    How many hours a week do you spend on this class outside of class time?

  20. 20.

    How does this class compare to your other math classes? (difficulty level and content)

  21. 21.

    What do you feel is the purpose of this class?

  22. 22.

    What do you feel the professor wants you to get out of it?

  23. 23.

    What do you find most difficult about the class?

  24. 24.

    Is there anything that you find easy about this class? If so, what?

  25. 25.

    What do you feel is the purpose of proofs?

  26. 26.

    Do you think of mathematics as being created or discovered?

  27. 27.

    How do you think a mathematician would answer that question?

  28. 28.

    Define what a mathematician is, in your opinion.

  29. 29.

    Is there such a thing as a typical mathematician? If so, describe one.

  30. 30.

    Do you consider yourself to be a mathematician-in-training?

  31. 31.

    Are there any other thoughts you would like to share with me?

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Piatek-Jimenez, K. Images of mathematicians: a new perspective on the shortage of women in mathematical careers. ZDM Mathematics Education 40, 633–646 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11858-008-0126-8

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11858-008-0126-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation