Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

It’s a matter of congruence: How interpersonal identification between sales managers and salespersons shapes sales success

  • Original Empirical Research
  • Published:
Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

In recent years, marketing research and practice have recognized the importance of managing frontline employees’ identification. However, investigations so far have focused on identification at the collective level of the self, such as organizational identification, thereby largely neglecting important interpersonal identification processes at the relational level. Using a large-scale dataset comprising information from sales managers and salespeople as well as company data on customer satisfaction and sales performance, the authors make a first attempt to address this neglect by exploring important phenomena of interpersonal identification in the sales manager–salesperson dyad. Results show that initial increases in the level of identification congruence between sales managers and their respective salespeople yield positive incremental effects on sales performance and customer satisfaction. Findings also show that interpersonal over-identification and identification incongruence are negatively related to both outcomes. Results demonstrate how sales managers could mitigate these negative effects.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. This does not imply that in sales manager–salesperson dyads characterized by a high level of identification congruence sales manager’s goals are necessarily the primary driver of a salesperson’s motivation to strive for high levels of sales performance and customer satisfaction. However, what we suggest is that compared to sales manager–salesperson dyads characterized by a lower level of identification congruence, a salesperson in a sales manager–salesperson dyad characterized by a high level of identification congruence is, ceteris paribus, more strongly motivated to meet or exceed the sales manager’s expectations.

  2. Note that all independent variables should be centered at their scale midpoints, so that zero is a meaningful value.

  3. The exception is the quadratic effect of sales managers’ identification, which is not significant for customer satisfaction as dependent variable.

  4. Again, the exception is the quadratic effect of sales managers’ identification on customer satisfaction, which is not significant.

  5. However, to adopt the adequate control approach depending on the specific identification constellation, sales managers have to assess the level of identification of their salespersons. For assessing a salesperson’s level of identification the sales manager may use the information from upward feedback processes or draw inferences from relationship-oriented behaviors of the salesperson (e.g., strive for interaction, adherence, interpersonal altruism, and invested effort to meet the sales manager’s expectations).

References

  • Ahearne, M., Rapp, A., Hughes, D. E., & Jindal, R. (2010). Managing sales force product perceptions and control systems in the success of new product introductions. Journal of Marketing Research, 47(4), 764–776.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Albert, S., Ashforth, B. E., & Dutton, J. E. (2000). Organizational identity and identification: charting new waters and building new bridges. Academy of Management Review, 25(1), 13–17.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, E., & Oliver, R. L. (1987). Perspectives on behavior-based versus outcome-based salesforce control systems. Journal of Marketing, 51(4), 76–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aquino, K., & Douglas, S. (2003). Identity threat and antisocial behavior in organizations: the moderating effects of individual differences, aggressive modeling, and hierarchical status. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 90(1), 195–208.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aron, A., Aron, E. N., Tudor, M., & Nelson, G. (1991). Close relationships as including other in the self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60(2), 241–253.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aron, A., McLaughlin-Volpe, T., Mashek, D., Lewandowski, G., Wright, S. C., & Aron, E. N. (2004). Including others in the self. European Review of Social Psychology, 15(1), 101–132.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ashforth, B. E., & Anand, V. (2003). The normalization of corruption in organizations. In B. M. Staw & R. M. Kramer (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior (pp. 1–52). Oxford: Elsevier.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ashforth, B. E., & Mael, F. (1989). Social identity theory and the organization. Academy of Management Journal, 14(1), 20–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ashforth, B. E., & Rogers, K. M. (2012). Is the employee-organization relationship misspecified? The centrality of tribes in experiencing the organization. In L. M. Shore, J. A.-M. Coyle-Shapiro, & L. E. Tetrick (Eds.), The employee-organization relationship (pp. 23–53). New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ashforth, B. E., & Sluss, D. M. (2006). Relational identities in organizations: Healthy versus unhealthy. In O. Kyriakidou & M. F. Özbilgin (Eds.), Relational perspectives in organizational studies (pp. 8–27). Northampton: Edward Elgar Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bagozzi, R. P., & Yi, Y. (1988). On the evaluation of structural equation models. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 16(1), 74–94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baldauf, A., Cravens, D. W., & Piercy, N. W. (2005). Sales management control research–synthesis and an agenda for future research. Journal of Personal Selling and Sales Management, 25(1), 7–26.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bashshur, M. R., Hernández, A., & González-Romá, V. (2011). When managers and their teams disagree: a longitudinal look at the consequences of differences in perceptions of organizational support. Journal of Applied Psychology, 96(3), 558–573.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117(3), 497–529.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bell, S. J., & Menguc, B. (2002). The employee-organization relationship, organizational citizenship behaviors, and superior service quality. Journal of Retailing, 78(2), 131–146.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bello, D. C., & Gilliand, D. I. (1997). The effect of output controls, process controls, and flexibility on export channel performance. Journal of Marketing, 61(1), 22–38.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brady, M. K., Vorhees, C. M., & Brusco, M. J. (2012). Service sweethearting: its antecedents and customer consequences. Journal of Marketing, 76(2), 81–98.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brewer, M. B., & Gardner, W. (1996). Who is this “We”? levels of collective identity and self representations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71(1), 83–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cardador, M. T., & Pratt, M. G. (2006). Identification management and its bases: bridging management and marketing perspectives through a focus on affiliation dimensions. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 34(2), 174–184.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Celsi, M. W., & Gilly, M. C. (2010). Employees as internal audience: how advertising affects employees’ customer focus. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 38(4), 520–529.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Churchill, G. A., Jr. (1979). A paradigm for developing better measures of marketing constructs. Journal of Marketing Research, 16(1), 64–73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cravens, D. W., Ingram, T. N., LaForge, R. W., & Young, C. E. (1993). Behavior-based and outcome-based salesforce control systems. Journal of Marketing, 57(4), 47–59.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika, 16(3), 297–334.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Edwards, J. R. (2002). Alternatives to difference scores: Polynomial regression analysis and response surface methodology. In F. Drasgow & N. W. Schmitt (Eds.), Advances in measurement and data analysis (pp. 350–400). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Edwards, J. R. (1995). Alternatives to difference scores as dependent variables in the study of congruence in organizational research. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 64(3), 307–327.

    Google Scholar 

  • Edwards, J. R., & Cable, D. M. (2009). The value of value congruence. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94(3), 654–677.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fang, E., Evans, K. R., & Landry, T. D. (2005). Control systems’ effect on attributional processes and sales outcomes: a cybernetic information-processing perspective. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 33(4), 553–574.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(1), 39–50.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gioia, D. A. (1998). From individual to organizational identity. In D. A. Whetten & P. C. Godfrey (Eds.), Identity in organizations: Building theory through conversations (pp. 17–31). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Goff, B. G., Boles, J. S., Bellenger, D. N., & Stojack, C. (1997). The influence of salesperson selling behaviors on customer satisfaction with products. Journal of Retailing, 73(2), 171–183.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Graen, G. B., & Uhl-Bien, M. (1995). Relationship-based approach to leadership: development of leader-member exchange (LMX) theory of leadership over 25 years: applying a multi-level multi-domain perspective. The Leadership Quarterly, 6, 219–247.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hartline, M. D., & Ferrell, O. C. (1996). The management of customer-contact service employees: an empirical investigation. Journal of Marketing, 60(4), 52–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hogg, M. A., & Terry, D. J. (2000). Social identity and self-categorization processes in organizational contexts. Academy of Management Review, 25(1), 121–140.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hogg, M. A., van Knippenberg, D., & Rast, D. E. (2012). Intergroup leadership in organizations: leading across group and organizational boundaries. Academy of Management Review, 37, 232–255.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Homburg, C., Wieseke, J., & Hoyer, W. D. (2009). Social identity and the service–profit chain. Journal of Marketing, 73(March), 38–54.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hox, J. J. (2010). Multilevel analysis: techniques and applications. New York: Routledge.

  • Hughes, D. E. (2012). This ad’s for you: the indirect effect of advertising perceptions on salesperson effort and performance. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, (forthcoming).

  • Hughes, D. E., & Ahearne, M. (2010). Energizing the reseller’s sales force: the power of brand identification. Journal of Marketing, 74(4), 81–96.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Humphrey, S. E., Nahrgang, J. D., & Morgeson, F. P. (2007). Integrating motivational, social, and contextual work design features: a meta-analytic summary and theoretical extension of the work design literature. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92(5), 1332–1356.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jasmand, C., Blazevix, V., & De Ruyter, K. (2012). Generating sales while providing service: a study of customer service representatives’ ambidextrous behavior. Journal of Marketing, 76(1), 20–37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kark, R., & Shamir, B. (2002). The dual effect of transformational leadership: Priming relational and collective selves and further effects on followers. In B. J. Avolio & F. J. Yammarino (Eds.), Transformational and charismatic leadership: The road ahead (pp. 67–91). Amsterdam: JAI: An Imprint of Elsevier Science.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kark, R., Shamir, B., & Chen, G. (2003). The two faces of transformational leadership: dependence and empowerment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(2), 246–255.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Katsikea, E., Theodosiou, T., & Morgan, R. E. (2007). Managerial, organizational, and external drivers of sales effectiveness in export market ventures. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 35, 270–283.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kelman, H. C. (1961). Processes of opinion change. Public Opinion Quarterly, 25, 57–78.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lam, S. K., Kraus, F., & Ahearne, M. (2010). The diffusion of market orientation throughout the organization: a social learning theory perspective. Journal of Marketing, 74(5), 61–79.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leary, M. R., Tambor, E. S., Terdal, S. K., & Downs, D. L. (1995). Self-esteem as an interpersonal monitor: the sociometer hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68(3), 518–530.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leary, M. R., Haupt, A. L., Strausser, K. S., & Chokel, J. T. (1998). Calibrating the sociometer: the relationship between interpersonal appraisals and state self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(5), 1290–1299.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lichtenstein, D. R., Netemeyer, R. G., & Maxham, J. G., III. (2010). The relationships among manager-, employee-, and customer-company identification: implications for retail store financial performance. Journal of Retailing, 86(1), 85–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mael, F. A., & Ashforth, B. (1992). Alumni and their alma mater: a partial test of the reformulated model of organizational identification. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 13(2), 103–123.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maxham, J. G., Netemeyer, R. G., & Lichtenstein, D. R. (2008). The retail value chain: linking employee perceptions to employee performance, customer evaluations, and store performance. Marketing Science, 27(2), 147–167.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oliver, R. L., & Anderson, E. (1994). An empirical test of the consequences of behavior- and outcome-based sales control systems. Journal of Marketing, 58(4), 53–67.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ortega, J. (2001). Job rotation as a learning mechanism. Management Science, 47(10), 1361–1370.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Piercy, N. F., Cravens, D. W., Lane, N., & Vorhies, D. W. (2006). Driving organizational citizenship behaviors and salesperson in-role behavior performance: the role of management control and perceived organizational support. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 34, 244–262.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pratt, M. G. (1998). To be or not to be, central questions in organizational identification. In D. A. Whetten & P. C. Godfrey (Eds.), Identity in organizations: Building theory through conversations (pp. 171–201). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Prentice, D. A. (2001). The individual self, relational self, and collective self: A commentary. In C. Sedikides & M. B. Brewer (Eds.), Individual self, relational self, and collective self (pp. 315–326). Philadelphia: Psychology Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sedikides, C., & Brewer, M. B. (2001). Individual self, relational self, and collective self: Partners, opponents, or strangers? In C. Sedikides & M. B. Brewer (Eds.), Individual self, relational self, and collective self (pp. 1–4). Philadelphia: Psychology Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sherif, M., & Hovland, C. I. (1961). Social judgment: Assimilation and contrast effects in communication and attitude change. Oxford: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sluss, D. M., & Ashforth, B. E. (2007). Relational identity and identification: defining ourselves through work relationships. Academy of Management Review, 32(1), 9–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smither, J. W., London, M., Vasilopoulos, N. J., Reilly, R. R., Millsap, R. E., & Salvemini, N. (1995). An examination of the effects of an upward feedback program over time. Personnel Psychology, 48(1), 1–34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Szymanski, D. M. (1988). Determinants of selling effectiveness: the importance of declarative knowledge to the personal selling concept. Journal of Marketing, 52(1), 64–77.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In S. Worchel & W. G. Austin (Eds.), Psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 7–24). Chicago: Nelson-Hall Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tepper, B. J. (1995). Upward maintenance tactics in supervisory mentoring and nonmentoring relationships. Academy of Management Journal, 38(4), 1191–1205.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Turner, J. C., Hogg, M. A., Oakes, P. J., Reicher, S. D., & Wetherell, M. S. (1987). Rediscovering the social group: a self-categorization theory. The American Journal of Sociology, 94(6), 1514–1516.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tyagi, P. K. (1982). Perceived organizational climate and the process of salesperson motivation. Journal of Marketing Research, 19(2), 240–254.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Umphress, E. E., Bingham, J. B., & Mitchell, M. S. (2010). Unethical behavior in the name of the company: the moderating effect of organizational identification and positive reciprocity beliefs on unethical pro-organizational behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95(4), 769–780.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vignoles, V. L., Regalia, C., Manzi, C., Golledge, J., & Scabini, E. (2006). Beyond self-esteem: influence of multiple motives on identity construction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90(2), 308–333.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Voss, Z. G., Cable, D. M., & Voss, G. B. (2006). Organizational identity and firm performance: what happens when leaders disagree about ‘Who We Are?’. Organization Science, 17(6), 741–755.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Walumbwa, F. O., Wang, P., Wang, H., Schaubroeck, J., & Avolio, B. J. (2010). Psychological processes linking authentic leadership to follower behaviors. The Leadership Quarterly, 21, 901–914.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wayne, S. J., Shore, L. M., & Liden, R. C. (1997). Perceived organizational support and leader-member exchange: a social exchange perspective. The Academy of Management Journal, 40, 82–111.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wieseke, J., Ahearne, M., Lam, S. K., & van Dick, R. (2009). The role of leaders in internal marketing. Journal of Marketing, 73(March), 123–145.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wieseke, J., Kraus, F., Ahearne, M., & Mikolon, S. (2012). Multiple identification foci and their countervailing effects on salespeople’s negative headquarters stereotypes. Journal of Marketing, 76(3), 1–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, Z., Wang, M., & Shi, J. (2012). Leader-follower congruence in proactive personality and work outcomes: the mediating role of leader-member exchange. Academy of Management Journal, 55(1), 111–130.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgment

The authors thank Pascal Güntürkün, Sven Mikolon, three anonymous reviewers, and the editor, Tomas Hult, for their helpful comments and suggestions.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Sales Excellence Institute, C.T. Bauer College of Business, University of Houston, 334 Melcher Hall, Houston, TX, 77204-6021, USA

    Michael Ahearne

  2. Marketing Department, Ruhr-University Bochum, 44780, Bochum, Germany

    Till Haumann

  3. Dr. Werner Jackstädt Endowed Chair of Business Administration and Marketing IV, University of Mannheim, L9, 1-2, 68161, Mannheim, Germany

    Florian Kraus

  4. Marketing Department, Ruhr-University Bochum, GC 4/162, 44780, Bochum, Germany

    Jan Wieseke

Authors
  1. Michael Ahearne
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Till Haumann
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Florian Kraus
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Jan Wieseke
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jan Wieseke.

Additional information

All authors contributed equally.

Appendices

Appendix A

Table 5 Measurement scales
Full size table

Appendix B

Table 6 HLM results using a block variable approach (moderational effects of sales force control systems)
Full size table

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Ahearne, M., Haumann, T., Kraus, F. et al. It’s a matter of congruence: How interpersonal identification between sales managers and salespersons shapes sales success. J. of the Acad. Mark. Sci. 41, 625–648 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-013-0333-x

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-013-0333-x

Keywords

Search

Navigation