Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

A Model of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations on Subjective Well-Being: The Experience of Overnight Visitors to a National Park

  • Published:
Applied Research in Quality of Life Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

According to the Self-Determination Theory (SDT) (Deci and Ryan 1985), intrinsic and extrinsic motivations can be differentiated with levels along a continuum representing distinct self-regulatory styles for behavior. Behavioral regulations consider different degrees to which they represent autonomous or self-determined functioning and specifically intrinsic motivations are characterized by the highest level of self-determination. Past research into the SDT has highlighted correlations between reasons with high levels of autonomy or self-determination for engaging in a particular behavior and enhanced Subjective Well-Being (SWB), as well as positive behavioral outcomes. Little is known about the relationship between visitors’ reasons for visiting a national park, associated self-regulatory styles and their self-appraisals of SWB. Therefore, the present research investigates the relationship between intrinsic and extrinsic motivations for visiting the Kruger National Park (KNP), associated self-regulatory styles and self-evaluations of SWB among 389 overnight visitors. A structural equation model (SEM) is proposed to examine both the cognitive (life satisfaction) and affective (positive and negative feelings) components of SWB in association to motivations with different degrees of self-determination. Reflecting previous research, the results show that overnight visitors who are more intrinsically motivated have higher life satisfaction levels, higher positive feelings and lower negative feelings. In contrast, overnight visitors who are less intrinsically motivated have lower life satisfaction levels, lower positive feelings and higher negative feeling. The practical implications of these findings are highlighted.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. “Internalization is the process of taking in a value or regulation, and integration is the process by which individuals more fully transform the regulation into their own so that it will emanate from their sense of self” (Ryan and Deci 2000, p.60)

References

  • Adams, K. B., Leibbrandt, S., & Moon, H. (2010). A critical review of the recent literature on activity and well-being in later life. Ageing and Society. [FirstView online publication, December 3, 2010.] doi:10.1017/S0144686X10001091

  • Amos Development Company. (2009). Amos 17.0.0 (Build 1404) Copyright 1983–2008 James L. Arbuckle .NET Framework Version 1.1.

  • Assor, A., Roth, G., & Deci, E. L. (2004). The emotional costs of parents’ conditional regard: a self-determination theory analysis. Journal of Personality, 72, 47–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Benware, C., & Deci, E. L. (1984). The quality of learning with an active versus passive motivational set. American Educational Research Journal, 21, 755–765.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blunch, N. J. (2008). Introduction to structural equation modelling using SPSS and AMOS. London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bradley, J. C., Waliczek, T. M., & Zajicek, M. (1997). Relationship between demographic variables and environmental attitudes of high school students. Journal of Natural Resources Life Science Education, 26, 102–104.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, B. A., Frankel, B. G., & Fennell, M. (1991). Happiness through leisure: the impact of type of leisure activity, age, gender and leisure satisfaction on psychological well-being. Journal of Applied Recreation Research, 16, 368–392.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burton, K. D., Lydon, J. E., D’Alessandro, D. U., & Koestner, R. (2006). The differential effects of intrinsic and identified motivation on well-being and performance: prospective, experimental and implicit approaches to self-determination theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 750–762.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Caldwell, L. L. (2005). Leisure and health: why is leisure therapeutic? British Journal of Guidance and Counseling, 33, 7–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Caltabiano, M. L. (1995). Main and stress-moderating health benefits of leisure. Society and Leisure, 18, 33–52.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cha, S., McCleary, K. W., & Uysal, M. (1995). Travel motivations of Japanese overseas travellers: a factor-cluster segmentation approach. Journal of Travel Research, 34, 33–39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crompton, J. L. (1979). Motivations for pleasure vacation. Annals of Tourism Research, 6, 408–424.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dann, G. (1996). The language of tourism: A sociolinguistic perspective. UK: CAB International.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deci, E. L. (1975). Intrinsic motivation. New York: Plenum.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behaviors. New York: Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1991). A motivational approach to self: Integration in personality. In R. Dienstbier (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation: Perspectives on motivation (pp. 237–288). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: human needs and the self-determination of behaviours. Psychological Inquiry, 11, 227–268.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deci, E. L., Schwartz, A. J., Sheinman, L., & Ryan, R. M. (1981). An instrument to assess adults’ orientations toward control versus autonomy with children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 73, 642–650.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deci, E. L., Eghrari, H., Patrick, B. C., & Leone, D. R. (1994). Facilitating internalization: the self-determination perspective. Journal of Personality, 62, 119–142.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E. (1984). Subjective well-being. Psychological Bulletin, 95, 542–575.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E. (2009). Assessing subjective well-being: Progress and opportunities. In E. Diener (Ed.), Assessing well-being, social indicators research series, 39 (pp. 25–66). New York: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., & Biswas-Diener, R. (2008). Happiness: unlocking the mysteries of psychological wealth. Malden: Blackwell Publishing.

  • Diener, E., & Fujita, F. (1994). Social comparisons and subjective well-being. In B. P. Buunk & F. X. Gibbons (Eds.), Health, coping, and well-being (pp. 329–357). Mahwah: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71–75.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dolan, P., Peasgood, T., & White, M. P. (2006). Review of research on the influences on personal well-being and application to policy making. London: DEFRA Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eagles, P. F. J., & McCool, S. F. (2002). Tourism in national parks and protected areas: Planning and management. England: CABI.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Understanding attitudes and predicting social behavior. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fodness, D. (1994). Measuring tourist motivation. Annals of Tourism Research, 21, 551–581.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frochot, I., & Morrison, A. M. (2000). Benefit segmentation: a review of its applications to travel and tourism research. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 9, 21–45.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gilbert, D., & Abdullah, J. (2004). Holidaytaking and the sense of well-being. Annals of Tourism Research, 31, 103–121.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Godbey, G. C. (1999). Leisure in your life. State College: Venture Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Godbey, G. C. (2009). Outdoor recreation and health: understanding and enhancing the relationship. Resources for the Future. April.

  • Guay, F., Vallerand, R. J., & Blanchard, C. M. (2000). On the assessment of situational intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: the situational motivation scale (sims). Motivation and Emotion, 24, 175–213.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hartig, T. A., Korpela, K., Evans, G. W., & Gärling, T. (1997). A measure of restorative quality in environments. Scandinavian Housing & Planning Research, 14, 175–194.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hazel, N. (2005). Holidays for children and families in need: an exploration of the research and policy contexts for social tourism in the UK. Children and Society, 19, 225–236.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Iso-Ahola, S. E., & Park, C. J. (1995). Leisure-related social support and self-determination as buffers of stress-illness relationship. Journal of Leisure Research, 28, 169–187.

    Google Scholar 

  • IUNC. (1998). Economic values of protected areas. Switzerland: Gland.

    Google Scholar 

  • Iwasaki, Y. (2001). Contributions of leisure to coping with daily hassles in university students’ lives. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science., 33, 128–142.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Iwasaki, Y. (2002). Testing independent and buffer models of the influence of leisure participation on stress-coping and adaptational outcomes. Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, 20, 90–129.

    Google Scholar 

  • Iwasaki, Y., Mactavish, J., & MacKay, K. (2005). Building on strengths and resilience: leisure as a stress survival strategy. British Journal of Guidance & Counseling, 33, 81–100.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kakyom, K., Jogaratnam, G., & Jeonghee, N. (2006). Travel decisions of students at a US university: segmenting the international market. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 12, 345–357.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kelley-Gillespie, N. (2009). An integrated conceptual model of quality of life for older adults based on a synthesis of the literature. Applied Research in Quality of Life, 4, 259–282.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, S. S., Lee, C., & Klenosky, D. B. (2003). The influence of push and pull factors at Korean national parks. Tourism Management, 24, 169–180.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kotler, P. (1992). Total marketing. Business Week Advance, Executive Brief, 2.

  • Kruger, M., & Saayman, M. (2010). Travel motivation of tourists to Kruger and Tsitsikamma National Parks: a comparative study. South African Journal of Wildlife Research, 40, 93–102.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Loker-Murphy, L. (1996). Backpackers in Australia: a motivation-based segmentation study. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 5, 23–46.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCabe, S., Joldersma, T., & Li, C. (2010). Understanding the benefits of Social tourism: linking participation to subjective wellbeing and quality of life. International Journal of Tourism Research, 12, 761–773.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McConkey, R., & Adams, L. (2000). Matching short break services for children with learning disabilities to family needs and preferences. Child: Care, Health and Development, 26, 429–443.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mill, R. C., & Morrison, A. M. (1985). The tourist system. An introductory text. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miserandino, M. (1996). Children who do well in school: individual differences in perceived competence and autonomy in above-average children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88, 203–214.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mueller, R. O. (1996). Basic principles of structural equation modeling: An introduction to LISREL and EQS. New York: Springer.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Neal, J., Sirgy, J., & Uysal, M. (2004). Measuring the effect of tourism services on travelers’ quality-of-life; further validation. Journal of Social Indicators, 69, 243–249.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Neal, J.D., Uysal, M., & Sirgy, J. (2007). The effect of tourism services on travelers’ quality of life. Journal of Travel Research, 46, 154–163.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pearce, P. L., & Lee, U. (2005). Developing the travel career approach to tourist motivation. Journal of Travel Research, 43, 226–237.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pelletier, L. G., Fortier, M. S., Vallerand, R. J., & Brière, N. M. (2002). Perceived autonomy support, levels of self-determination, and persistence: a longitudinal investigation. Motivation and Emotion, 25, 279–306.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pike, S., & Ryan, C. (2004). Destination positioning analysis through a comparison of cognitive, affective, and conative perceptions. Journal of Travel Research, 42, 333–342.

    Google Scholar 

  • Przeclawski, K. (1993). Tourism as the subject of interdisciplinary research. In D. Pearce & R. Butler (Eds.), Tourism research: Critiques and challenges (pp. 9–19). London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raj, A. (2004). Tourist behaviour: An introduction. In A. Raj (Ed.), Tourist behaviour: A psychological perspective (pp. 3–23). New Delhi: Kaniska.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reis, H. T., Sheldon, K. M., Gable, S. L., Roscoe, J., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). Daily well-being: the role of autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 419–435.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, R. M., & Connell, J. P. (1989). Perceived locus of causality and internalization. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 749–761.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55, 68–78.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Saayman, M., Kruger, M., & Fouche, M. (2009). Executive summary of research profiles of selected national parks in South Africa. Potchefstroom: Institute for Tourism and Leisure Studies.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sheldon, K. M., & Kasser, T. (1995). Coherence and congruence: two aspects of personality integration. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 531–543.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sheldon, K. M., Ryan, R. M., & Reis, H. T. (1996). What makes for a good day? Competence and autonomy in the day and in the person. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 1270–1279.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sirgy, M. J. (2002). Psychology of quality of life. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sirgy, M. J. (2010). Towards a quality–of–life theory of leisure travel satisfaction. Journal of Travel Research, 49, 246–260.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smale, B. J. A., & Dupuis, S. (1993). The relationship between leisure activity participation and psychological wellbeing across the lifespan. Journal of Applied Recreation Research, 18, 281–300.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using multivariate statistics (5th ed.). New York: Allyn and Bacon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tkaczynski, A., & Rundle-Thiele, S. R. (2010). Event segmentation: a review and research agenda. Tourism Management, 1, 1–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Um, S., & Crompton, J. (1990). Attitude determinants in tourism destination choice. Annals of Tourism Research, 17, 432–448.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Uysal, M., McDonald, C. D., & Martin, B. S. (1994). Australian visitors to US national parks and natural areas. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 6, 18–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Valas, H., & Sovik, N. (1993). Variables affecting students’ intrinsic motivation for school mathematics: two empirical studies based on Deci and Ryan’s Theory on motivation. Learning and Instruction, 3, 281–298.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vallerand, R. J. (1997). Toward a hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (pp. 271–360). San Diego: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vallerand, R. J. (2000). Deci and Ryan’s self-determination theory: a view from the hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Psychological Inquiry, 11, 312–318.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vansteenkiste, M., Lens, W., & Deci, E. (2006). Intrinsic versus extrinsic goal contents in self-determination theory: another look at the quality of academic motivation. Educational Psychologist, 41, 19–31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Veenhoven, R. (1991). Is happiness relative? Social Indicators Research, 24, 1–34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wheaton, B., Muthen, B., Alwin, D. F., & Summers, G. (1977). Assessing reliability and stability in panel models. Sociological Methodology, 8, 84–136.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wheeler, R. J., & Frank, M. A. (1988). Identification of stress buffers. Behavioral Medicine, 14, 78–89. www.sanparks.org (document retrieved on January 2012).

  • Zajonc, R. B. (1980). Feeling and thinking: preferences need no inferences. American Psychologist, 35, 151–175.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. North-West University Potchefstroom Campus, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom, South Africa, 2520

    Francesca Cini & Stefan Kruger

  2. Statistical Consultation Services, North-West University Potchefstroom Campus, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom, South Africa, 2520

    Suria Ellis

Authors
  1. Francesca Cini
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Stefan Kruger
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Suria Ellis
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Francesca Cini.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Cini, F., Kruger, S. & Ellis, S. A Model of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations on Subjective Well-Being: The Experience of Overnight Visitors to a National Park. Applied Research Quality Life 8, 45–61 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-012-9173-y

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-012-9173-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation