Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Chemical assessment of lead, cadmium, nitrate, and nitrite intakes with daily diets of children and adolescents from orphanages in Krakow, Poland

  • Research Article
  • Published:
Environmental Science and Pollution Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The aim of this study has been to measure the level of lead, cadmium, nitrates, and nitrites in the daily diets of children and adolescents from orphanages located in Krakow (Poland). Diets were collected over four seasons of 2009. The content of cadmium and lead was measured with flameless atomic absorption spectrometry. Nitrates and nitrites in diets were measured using the Griess colorimetric method. In all orphanages, the average intake of lead with daily diets, regardless of the season, ranged from 1.11 ± 0.15 to 22.59 ± 0.07 μg/kg bw/week. The average cadmium intake by children and adolescents ranged between 3.09 ± 0.21 and 20.36 ± 2.21 μg/kg bw/week and, for all orphanages, exceeded the tolerable weekly intake (TWI) level. Daily intake of nitrates and nitrites ranged respectively from 27 to 289 % and from 9 to 99 % of the acceptable daily intake (ADI). The youngest children, with lower body mass, were particularly sensitive to the excessive intakes of cadmium and nitrates.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Abbreviations

ADI:

Acceptable daily intake

PTWI:

Provisional tolerable weekly intake

TWI:

Tolerable weekly intake

BMDL:

Brenchmark dose lower confidence limits

EFSA:

European Food Safety Authority

JECFA:

The Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives

References

  • Bawa S, Rutkowska A, Starbała A (2008) Assessment of the intake of nitrates and nitrites in the selected population groups. Bromat Chem Toksykol 3:519–524 in Polish

    Google Scholar 

  • Betts KS (2012) CDC updates guidelines for children’s lead exposure. Environ Health Perspect 120:a268. doi:10.1289/ehp.120-a268

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chowdbury BA, Chandra RK (1987) Biological and health implications of toxic heavy metal and essential trace element interactions. Prog Food Nutr Sc 11:55–59

    Google Scholar 

  • Dudka J, Szczepaniak S, Mazur M (1997) Assessment of chronic effect of lead and sodium nitrite on selected biochemial parameters in the blond of rat’. Part I. The effect on hemoglobin, sulphur groups and tryptophan. Roczn PZH 48:23–29 in Polish

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • EN-14084:2003 Food products. Determination of trace elements. Determination of Pb, Cd, Zn, Cu, and Fe content by the use of atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) after microwave mineralization (in Polish)

  • Engström AK, Vahter M, Julin B, Wolk A, Åkesson A (2012) Associations between dietary cadmium exposure and bone mineral density and risk of osteoporosis and fractures among women. Bone 6(50):1372–1378

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Enli Y, Turgut S, Oztekin S, Demir S, Enli H, Turgut G (2010) Cadmium intoxication of pregnant rats and fetuses: interactions of copper supplementation. Arch Med Res 41(1):7–13

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • European Food Safety Authority (2009) Scientific opinion of the panel on contaminants in the food chain on a request from the European Commission on cadmium in food. The EFSA Journal 980:1–139

    Google Scholar 

  • European Food Safety Authority (2010) EFSA panel on contaminants in the food chain (CONTAM); scientific opinion on lead in food. EFSA J 8(4):1570

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • European Food Safety Authority (2012) Cadmium dietary exposure in the European population. Scientific report of EFSA. EFSA J 10(1):2551

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Faulk C, Barks A, Sánchez BN, Anderson OS, Peterson KE, Dolinoy DC (2014) Perinatal lead (Pb) exposure results in sex-specific effect on food intake, fat, weight, and insulin response across the murine life course. PLoS One 9(8):e104273. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0104273

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gawęcki J (2010) Human nutrition basic of science nutrition. Warszawa PWN: 525 (In Polish)

  • Gilbert SG, Weiss B (2006) A rationale for lowering the blood lead action level from 10 to 2 μg/dL. Neurotoxicology 27(5):693–701

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Goyer RA (1997) Toxic and essential metal interactions. Ann Rev Nutr 17:37–50

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hord NG, Tang Y, Bryan NS (2009) Food sources of nitrates and nitrites: the physiologic context for potential health benefits. Am J Clin Nutr 90:1–10

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ishiwata H, Sugita T, Kawasaki Y, Takeda Y, Yamada T, Nishijima M, Fukasawa Y (2000) Estimation of inorganic food additive (nitrite, nitrate, and sulfur dioxide) concentration in foods and their daily intake based on official inspection results in Japan in fiscal year 1996. J Food Hyg Soc Jpn 41(1):79–85

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Järup L, Akesson A (2009) Current status of cadmium as an environmental health problem. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 238(3):201–208. doi:10.1016/j.taap.2009.04.020

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kapil V, Webb AJ, Ahluwalia A (2010) Inorganic nitrate and the cardiovascular system. Heart 96:1703–1709

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kapusta-Duch J, Leszczyńska T, Filipiak-Florkiewicz A (2010) Comparison of nitrates and nitrites contents in the cruciferous vegetables cultivated in the T. Sendzimir Steelworks protection zone, on organic farms and commercially available on local markets. In the monograph: Rembiałkowska E. (red.). The impact of organic production methods on the vegetable product quality. Polish-Norwegian Research Fund, Norway Grants, Warszawa, 131–143

  • Kapusta-Duch J, Leszczyńska T, Forkiewicz A, Filipiak-Florkiewicz A (2011) Comparison of lead and cadmium contents in cruciferous vegetables grown under diversified ecological conditions: Cracow Region of Poland. Ecol. Food Nutr 50(2):137–154

    Google Scholar 

  • Kłos A, Długaszek M, Bertrandt J (2008) Cadmium content in selected hospital diets. Bromat Chem Toksykol 2:99–104

    Google Scholar 

  • Kłos A, Bertrandt J, Stężycka E, Długaszek M (2009) Lead and cadmium content in the daily food rations used in soldiers’ alimentation within the space of years. Bromat Chem Toksykol 3:766–770 in Polish

    Google Scholar 

  • Konieczka P, Namieśnik J (ed) (2007) Assessment and control of quality results of analytical measurements. Wyd Naukowo-Techniczne, Warszawa (jn Polish)

  • Kunachowicz H, Czarnowska-Misztal E, Turlejska H (2007) Principles in human nutrition. Wyd. Szkolne i Pedagogiczne Sp. A Warszawa, p. 180 (in Polish)

  • Leblanc JC, Lawal JA, Ogunkeye AA, Orejimi BM (2000) Estimation of dietary intake of pesticide residues, lead, cadmium, arsenic and radionuclides in France. Food Addit Contam 17(11):925–932

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Leszczyńska T (2000) An assessment of intake of nitrates and nitrites with daily food rations by selected rural inhabitants. Pol J Food Nutr Sci 9/50(1):67–70

    Google Scholar 

  • Leszczyńska T, Gambuś F (2001) Assessment of lead and cadmium intake with food rations by inhabitants of selected rural households. Pol J Food Nutr Sci 10/51(1):45–48

    Google Scholar 

  • Leszczyńska T, Filipiak-Florkiewicz A, Cieślik E, Sikora E, Pisulewski PM (2009) Effects of some processing methods on nitrate and nitrite changes in cruciferous vegetables. J Food Comp Anal 22(4):315–321

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liu CM, Ma JQ, Sun Y-Z (2010a) Quercetin protects the rat Sidney against oxidative stress-mediated DNA damage and apoptosis induced by lead. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol 30:264–271

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Liu P, Wang C-N, Song X-Y, Wu Y-N (2010b) Dietary intake of lead and cadmium by children and adults—result calculated from dietary recall and available lead/cadmium level in food in comparison to result from food duplicate diet method. Intl J Hygiene Environ Health Ens 213(6):450–457

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Liu CM, Ma JQ, Sun Y-Z (2012) Puerarin protects the rat liver against oxidative stress-mediated DNA damage and apoptosis induced by lead. Exp Toxicol Pathol 64:575–582

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Majchrzak D (1985) The effect of nitrates and nitrites on human and animals organism. Żyw Człow Metab 12:298–304 in Polish

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Martí-Cid R, Llobet J, Domingo JL (2008) Dietary intake of arsenic, cadmium, mercury, and lead by the population of Catalonia, Spain. Biol Trace Elem Res 2(125):120–132

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marzec Z, Łukasiewicz M (2010) Cadmium, lead and nickel in food rations of the canteens of welfare institutions. Bromat Chem Toksykol 3:281–286

    Google Scholar 

  • Marzec Z, Schlegel-Zawadzka M (2004) Exposure to cadmium, lead and mercury in the adult population from Eastern Poland, 1990–2002. Food Addit Contam 10:963–970

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muñoz O, Bastias JM, Araya M, Morales A, Orellana C, Rebolledo R, Velez D (2005) Estimation of the dietary intake of cadmium, lead, mercury, and arsenic by the population of Santiago (Chile) using a total diet study. Food Chem Toxicol 43(11):1647–1655

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Myshkin AE, Konyaeva VS, Gumargalieva KZ, Moiseev YV (1997) Oxidation of ascorbic acid in the presence of nitrites. J Agric Food Chem 44(10):2948–2950

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ociepa-Kubicka A, Ociepa E (2012) Toxic effects of heavy metals on plants, animals and humans. Eng Prot Environ 2:169–180 in Polish

    Google Scholar 

  • Polish Standard 1992 PN-92/A-75112. Polish Committee for Standardization. Food products—determination of nitrites and nitrates (in Polish)

  • Pysz K, Leszczyńska T, Kopeć A (2016) Intake of vitamin C, β-carotene and polyphenolic compounds by children and adolescents from orphanages. J Am Coll Nutr 35(1):75–85. doi:10.1080/07315724.2014.987405

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rubio C, Hardisson A, Reguera JI, Revert C, Lafuente MA, Gonzalez-Iglesias T (2006) Cadmium dietary intake in the Canary Islands, Spain. Environ Research 100:123–129

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sand S, Becker W (2012) Assessment of dietary cadmium exposure in Sweden and population health concern including scenario analysis. Food Chem Toxicol 50:536–544

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sindler AL, Devan AE, Fleenor BS, Seals DR (2014) Inorganic nitrite supplementation for healthy arterial aging. J Appl Physiol 116(5):463–477

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tamme T, Reinik M, Roasto M, Juhkam K, Tenno T, Kiis A (2006) Nitrates and nitrites in vegetables and vegetable-based products and their intakes by the Estonian population. Food Addit Contam 23(4):355–361

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thomson FE, Byers T (1994) Dietary assessment resource manual. J Nutr 124:2245S–2317S

    Google Scholar 

  • Vaessen HAMG, Schothorst RC (1999) The oral nitrate and nitrite intake in the Netherlands: evaluation of the results obtained by HPLC analysis of duplicate 24-hour diet samples collected in 1994. Food Addit Contam 16(5):181–188

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Van Cauwenbergh R, Bosscher D, Robberecht H, Deelstra H (2000) Daily dietary cadmium intake in Belgium using duplicate portion sampling. Eur Food Res Technol 212:13–16

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Volkmer BG, Ernst B, Simon J, Kuefer R, Bartsch G Jr, Bach D, Gschwend JE (2005) Influence of nitrate levels in drinking water on urological malignancies: a community-based cohort study. BJU Int 95(7):972–976

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Watanabe T, Nakatsuka H, Shimbo S, Yaginuma-Sakurai K, Ikeda M (2013) High cadmium and low lead exposure of children in Japan. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 86:865–873

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wawrzyniak A, Szczepańska M, Hamułka J, Szymczyk K (2008a) Assessment of nitrates and nitrites contents in preschool food rations. Roczniki PZH 3:273–281 in Polish

    Google Scholar 

  • Wawrzyniak A, Hamułka J, Pająk M (2008b) Evaluation of nitrates and nitrites food intake in Polish households in years 1996-2005. Roczniki PZH 1:9–18 in Polish

    Google Scholar 

  • Wawrzyniak A, Hamułka J, Pankowska I (2010) Evaluation of nitrites and nitrates food intake in the students’ group. Ann Nat Inst Hyg 4:367–372 in Polish

    Google Scholar 

  • WHO (2010b) Preventing disease through heath environments. Exposure to lead a major public health concern. World Heath Organization, Geneva http://www.who.int/ipcs/features/lead.pdf

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilk A, Kalisińska E, Różański J, Łanocha N (2013) Cadmium, lead and mercury in human kidneys. J Environ Med 16(1):75–81

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization (2006) International Program on Chemical Safety, Environmental Health Criteria 5: nitrates, nitrites, and N-nitroso compounds. http://www.inchem.org/documents/pims/chemical/pimg016.htm version 29.01.2015

  • World Health Organization (2010a) Preventing disease through healthy environments exposure to cadmium: a major public health concern. Geneva, Swidzerland

  • Ysart G, Miller P, Croasdale M, Crews H, Robb P, Baxter M, L’Agry C, Harrison N (2000) UK total diet study—dietary exposures to aluminum, arsenic, cadmium, chromium, cooper, lead, mercury, nickel, selenium, tin and zinc. Food Addit Contam 17(9):775–786

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The study was financed by Ministry of Science and Higher Education of Republic of Poland.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Human Nutrition, Faculty of Food Technology, University of Agriculture in Krakow, Balicka str. 122, 30-149, Krakow, Poland

    Katarzyna Pysz, Teresa Leszczyńska, Renata Bieżanowska-Kopeć & Aneta Kopeć

Authors
  1. Katarzyna Pysz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Teresa Leszczyńska
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Renata Bieżanowska-Kopeć
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Aneta Kopeć
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Aneta Kopeć.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.

Additional information

Responsible editor: Vítor Pais Vilar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Pysz, K., Leszczyńska, T., Bieżanowska-Kopeć, R. et al. Chemical assessment of lead, cadmium, nitrate, and nitrite intakes with daily diets of children and adolescents from orphanages in Krakow, Poland. Environ Sci Pollut Res 23, 25200–25209 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-7550-z

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-7550-z

Keywords

Search

Navigation