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Principals and Agents: An Investigation of Executive Compensation in Human Service Nonprofits

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Abstract

This study proposes a revised agency theory for the nonprofit sector, distinguishes between the extent of agency and the extent of monitoring, and compares the magnitudes of the two impacts. Using panel data for 1998–2003, the paper tests whether monitoring by principal-stakeholders such as donors, clients, the government, and the board reduces the opportunity for executive misconduct such as extravagant spending on compensation and perquisites. Given the theory, the findings show that two effects influence CEO salaries. First, while nonprofit endowments provide a fiscal cushion in tough financial situations, by offering “organizational slack” they also increase the CEO’s opportunity to steal or raise her compensation (i.e., agency effect). Second, donors utilize monitoring mechanisms such as auditing or direct observations, which limit the opportunity for misconduct and reduce executive pay (i.e., monitoring effect). In the final analysis, the monitoring effect is greater than the agency effect, which implies that even if agency problems are present, the monitoring that donors provide offsets them.

Résumé

Cette étude propose d’appliquer une nouvelle théorie de l’agence au secteur à but non lucratif, établit une distinction entre la portée de l’agence et la portée du contrôle externe, et compare l’importance de l’impact de l’une et l’autre. En utilisant les données d’une recherche sur un échantillon pour les années 1998–2003, l’article cherche à établir si le contrôle exercé par les principales parties prenantes telles que les donateurs, les clients, le gouvernement et les conseils d’administration réduit les chances que la direction ne commette des fautes telles que des dépenses extravagantes sur les compensations financières et autres avantages. Sur la base de la théorie proposée, les résultats montrent que deux facteurs principaux influencent les salaires des dirigeants. En premier lieu, les dotations des organisations à but non lucratif offrent une marge de manœuvre budgétaire dans les situations financières difficiles, mais en permettant cette « flexibilité organisationnelle » elles offrent aussi aux dirigeants de plus grandes opportunités d’augmenter leur salaire (il s’agit là de l’effet d’agence). En second lieu, les donateurs utilisent des mécanismes de contrôle tels que l’audit ou l’observation directe, qui limitent les opportunités d’inconduite et réduisent les salaires des dirigeants (il s’agit là de l’effet de contrôle). En fin de compte, l’effet de contrôle l’emporte sur l’effet d’agence, ce qui signifie que même s’il existe des problèmes d’agence, ils sont compensés par le contrôle qu’exercent les donateurs.

Zusammenfassung

In dieser Studie werden eine überarbeitete Agency-Theorie für den gemeinnützigen Sektor vorgeschlagen, zwischen dem Ausmaß der Agency und dem Umfang der Überwachung unterschieden und die Auswirkungen beider verglichen. Unter Verwendung von Paneldaten für den Zeitraum von 1998 bis 2003 wird untersucht, ob eine Überwachung durch die Prinzipal-Stakeholder, zum Beispiel Spender, Auftraggeber, Regierung und Vorstand, die Möglichkeit für ein Fehlverhalten von Führungskräften, wie übermäßige Ausgaben für Vergütungen und Sonderzulagen, verringert. Im Hinblick auf die Theorie zeigen die Ergebnisse, dass sich zwei Einflussgrößen auf die Gehälter von Geschäftsführern auswirken. Erstens dienen gemeinnützige Zuwendungen in schwierigen finanziellen Situationen zwar als ein finanzielles Polster, doch durch eine mögliche „organisatorische Nachlässigkeit“bieten sie den Geschäftsführern auch eine bessere Gelegenheit, Gelder zu entwenden oder ihre Vergütung zu erhöhen (Agency-Effekt). Zweitens wenden Spender Überwachungsmechanismen an, wie Wirtschaftsprüfungen oder direkte Beobachtungen, die die Möglichkeit eines Fehlverhaltens beschränken und die Vergütung der Führungskräfte reduzieren (Überwachungseffekt). In der abschließenden Analyse ist der Überwachungseffekt größer als der Agency-Effekt, was darauf hinweist, dass selbst, wenn es Agency-Probleme gibt, diese durch die Überwachung der Spender aufgewogen werden.

Resumen

El presente estudio ofrece una teoría de la agencia revisada para el sector de las organizaciones sin ánimo de lucro, y distingue entre el alcance de la agencia y el alcance de la monitorización y compara las magnitudes de los dos impactos. Utilizando datos de panel para 1998–2003, el documento pone a prueba si la monitorización por las partes interesadas principales, tales como donantes, clientes, el gobierno, y el consejo, reduce la oportunidad de mala conducta de los ejecutivos tales como gasto extravagante en compensaciones y gratificaciones. Dada la teoría, los hallazgos muestran que dos efectos influyen en los salarios del CEO. En primer lugar, aunque las fundaciones sin ánimo de lucro proporcionan un cojín fiscal en situaciones financieras difíciles, al ofrecer “lasitud organizativa” aumentan también la oportunidad de que el CEO robe o aumente su compensación (es decir, el efecto de la agencia). En segundo lugar, los donantes utilizan mecanismos de monitorización, tales como auditorías u observaciones directas, que limitan la oportunidad de que surja una mala conducta y reducen el salario de los ejecutivos (es decir, el efecto de la monitorización). En el análisis final, el efecto de la monitorización es mayor que el efecto de la agencia, lo que implica que aunque haya problemas de agencia, la monitorización que proporcionan los donantes los compensa.

摘要

本篇研究论文为非营利部门提出修正的代理理论,区别代理范围与监督范围,对比这两种效应的程度。本篇论文运用1998–2003年的固定样本数据,评估主要主体(比如捐赠人、客户、政府及委员会)的监督是否会降低出现行政失当行为的可能性,比如提供过多的薪酬和津贴。基于这个理论,研究结果表明,有两个效应会影响 CEO 的工资。首先,一方面非营利捐赠在艰难的财务环境下能缓解财政困难,另一方面与之相关的“组织松弛”也增加了 CEO 盗取或提高薪酬的可能性(即代理效应)。其次,捐赠人运用监督机制(比如审计或直接观察)限制失当行为的可能性、降低管理人员的薪酬(即监督效应)。根据最后的分析结论,监督效应大于代理效应,这意味着,即便存在代理问题,捐赠人的监督也能产生抵消作用。

ملخص

هذه الدراسة تقترح نظرية الوكالة المنقحة للقطاع الغير ربحي، تميز بين إمتداد الوكالة وإمتداد الرصد وتقارن أهمية الأثرين. بإستخدام بيانات متعددة الأبعاد للفترة ما بين 1998-2003، البحث يفحص ما إذا كان الرصد من قبل أصحاب المصلحة الرئيسيين، مثل المانحين، العملاء، الحكومة، والمجلس يقلل من فرصة سوء السلوك التنفيذي مثل الإنفاق ببذخ على تعويضات و علاوات إستثنائية. بإفتراض النظرية، النتائج تظهر أن التأثيرين يؤثرون على رواتب الرؤساء التنفيذيين(CEO). أولا˝، في حين أن الدعم المالي الغير ربحي من التبرعات يوفر حساب إحتياطي في الحالات المالية الصعبة، من خلال تقديم “ركود تنظيمي” كما أنه يزيد فرصة الرئيس التنفيذي للسرقة أو يزيد التعويضات لها (مثال٬ تأثير الوكالة). ثانيا˝، الجهات المانحة بإسعخدام آليات الرصد، مثل المراجعة أو الملاحظات المباشرة، التي تحد من الفرص لسوء السلوك و تقلل رواتب المسؤولين التنفيذيين (مثال٬ تأثير الرصد). في التحليل النهائي، تأثير الرصد أكبر من تأثير الوكالة، وهو ما يعني أنه حتى لو مشاكل الوكالة موجودة، الرصد الذي يقدمه المانح يعوض ذلك.

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Notes

  1. Stakeholder theory emphasizes the mediation of internal and external stakeholders (Krashinsky 1997; Laplume et al. 2008), while the stewardship paradigm stipulates that agents derive utility from acting in the principal’s interest and predicts little or no goal conflict between principals and agents (Caers et al. 2006; Van Puyvelde et al. 2011). See Van Puyvelde et al. (2011) for a description of the different stakeholder groups. To their list, this paper adds the following stakeholders: the IRS, professional associations, nonprofit scholars, and former employees.

  2. The term nonprofit refers to three broad types of tax-exempt organizations: public charities, private foundations, and other types of nonprofits such as fraternities, civil leagues, and chambers of commerce. The focus of this paper is on 501(c)(3) public charity organizations, which represent a little less than two-thirds of all nonprofits. .

  3. For a summary of the for-profit literature on agency theory, see Abowd and Kaplan (1999), Eisenhardt (1989), and Murphy (1999).

  4. For a description of the variants of agency problems, see Steinberg (2010, pp. 76–78). Given imperfect monitoring, the second-best solution to the agency problem is to offer managers incentive contracts which tie their compensation to organizational performance and thus better align the incentives of executives and owners (Jensen and Meckling 1976; Preyra and Pink 2001).

  5. Frumkin and Keating (2010) take a different venue and examine remuneration from the legal vantage point of the non-distribution constraint.

  6. Note that many nonprofits, especially the large ones, use compensation consultants to determine appropriate levels of officer pay. As Gose (2012) points out in a recent article, the use of consultants was prompted by the IRS’ advice to charities to set compensation levels for their top executives by examining remuneration in comparable organizations. Note that the IRS imposes immediate sanctions for organizations in which the top executive receives unreasonable compensation. As such, it also acts as a principal-stakeholder monitoring the organization and mitigating agency problems.

  7. For a detailed classification of occupational fraud, see Greenlee et al. (2007).

  8. While corporations are subject to similar scrutiny through shareholder participation, compensation disclosure, and judicial review of board decisions over pay (Hill 2006), the nature of principal-agent relations is different in nonprofits. First, because nonprofits deliver public goods and interactions between third sector managers and the stakeholders are based on trust, nonprofits may have more to lose from exposure of wrongdoing (Wilhelm 2006). While an executive misconduct scandal may tarnish a corporation’s prestige or even drive it out of business, a nonprofit compensation scandal affects not only the particular organization’s ability to raise revenue but also has impacts the sector as a whole (Harshbarger and Netishen 2008).

  9. Baber et al. (2002) look at whether monitoring by charity watchdog agencies puts a downward pressure on executive compensation and find no statistically significant differences. Fisman and Hubbard (2005) conclude that nonprofit CEO compensation schemes more highly correlate with donations in states with greater Attorney General oversight. This result is related to the idea that in states with poor government oversight, managers would take advantage of lax regulations and divert a greater proportion of donations to their own compensation (Fisman and Hubbard 2005, p. 2239). Similarly, Desai and Yetman (2006) find that strong state regulations have a negative impact on nonprofit CEO pay. Furthermore, the board’s checks and balances may diminish agency problems. For example, Hallock (2002) finds that the higher the number of paid board members, the smaller the nonprofit CEO compensation.

  10. The term “year” can mean four different things:

    1. (i)

      the year of IRS processing of the 990 form

    2. (ii)

      the end of the filer’s fiscal year

    3. (iii)

      the tax year of reporting, or

    4. (iv)

      the “central time period” for the data

    In other words, a data year could include tax return information spanning over the course of three years but NCCS assures that there is very small bias from combining data this way (NCCS 2006, pp. 12–14).

  11. The National Taxonomy of Exempt Entities (NTEE) developed by the Center and Nonprofits and Philanthropy at the Urban Institute classifies these types of organizations in the following categories: I, J, K, L, M, P, O, and S. Of the original sample of 441,333 year-organization units, observations with missing or blatantly erroneous or duplicate data are excluded from the regressions.

  12. A robustness check using the sum of the top executive compensations as the dependent variable is available in “Results” section (Table 8).

  13. The fundraising efficiency ratio variable (FUNDCONT) was also considered. It was excluded from the regressions because it is documented in the literature that nonprofits report zero fundraising expenses while these expenses are not truly zero (Greenlee et al. 2007; Keating et al. 2006; Krishnan et al. 2006). In my sample, 73 % of the observations have missing or zero fundraising expenses and adding variable with such nonrandom measurement error will decrease the internal validity of the results.

  14. Because TA is log-transformed, its coefficient estimate is the elasticity of CEO pay with respect to total assets.

  15. The log specification correctly models compensation as a function increasing at a decreasing rate, which is a standard transformation for earnings equations. Note that log transformation still leaves the estimators linear, consistent with the OLS assumptions.

  16. OLS estimations were used as the baseline but are not included because they are biased and inconsistent given the panel nature.

  17. To decide between fixed and random effects, the Hausman test on the general fixed and random effects models was run and the relatively large and statistically significant Chi squared test statistic of 4,044 indicates that the two models produce substantively different coefficient estimates. In short, the Hausman test results favored fixed over random effects models. The random effects models assume that the effects are exogenous to the regressors and if this assumption is violated, the Hausman test favors fixed effects (Schaffer, 2010).

  18. Variance Inflation Factors (VIFs) were also computed to check whether high association between the regressors might bias the results and no multicollinearity problems were found.

  19. It is also possible that this coefficient estimate for TEMP is consistently positive because it demonstrates that CEOs are rewarded for attracting temporarily restricted net assets, which are a particular type of “earmarked” funding which donors prefer.

  20. Because they suspect misreporting, Carroll et al. (2005) drop zero compensation values. Hallock (2002) omits all missing, zero, and observations of salaries less than $1,000.

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Acknowledgments

I would like to thank Dr. Ioana Petrescu for her invaluable guidance and advice throughout the revision process of this paper. I would also like to thank Dr. Carol Graham, as well as Dr. Madiha Afzal, Dr. Laura Langbein, and Zafar Imran for their helpful comments and edits. I thank Katie Roeger of NCCS for providing me with the NCCS data and for her guidance. I am also greatly indebted to the anonymous referees for their thoughtful and thorough feedback and for their helpful suggestions.

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Correspondence to Milena Nikolova.

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Nikolova, M. Principals and Agents: An Investigation of Executive Compensation in Human Service Nonprofits. Voluntas 25, 679–706 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-013-9358-5

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