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Greater Synergy and Improved Collaboration: Do Complex Partnerships Deliver on the Promise in Countries Emerging From Armed Conflict?

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Abstract

Complex or multi-stakeholder partnerships—those that include several actors of different types, i.e. public, private or civic—are becoming increasingly popular in different contexts and across policy domains. This is also the case in countries emerging from armed conflict, where many donors are actively promoting partnerships of different kinds that are seen as a solution to a number of concerns from efficiency and effectiveness to empowerment, trust building and local ownership. However, the actual evidence supporting these assumptions remains scarce. This article focuses on several core characteristics of intra-partnership dynamics through original empirical research on complex partnerships operating in Kosovo, Afghanistan, and the DRC. It concludes by showing that real existing complex partnerships in countries emerging from armed conflict demonstrate compositional characteristics typically attributed to complex partnerships but not the modes of governance expected of such partnerships, failing to exploit their added value as a result.

Résumé

Les partenariats complexes ou pluri-acteurs - à savoir ceux incluant plusieurs acteurs de types différents, c’est-à-dire publics, privés ou civils, deviennent de plus en plus populaires dans différents contextes et à travers certains secteurs politiques. Ceci est également le cas dans les pays sortant d’un conflit armé, où de nombreux donateurs font activement la promotion de partenariats d’une nature différente, considérés comme une solution pour une série de problèmes notamment l’efficience et l’efficacité, l’émancipation, la construction d’une confiance et la propriété locale. Cependant, les éléments concrets venant soutenir ces hypothèses demeurent rares. Cet article s’intéresse à plusieurs caractéristiques centrales des dynamiques entre partenariats par le biais d’une recherche empirique originale sur des partenariats complexes mis en œuvre au Kosovo, en Afghanistan et en RDC. Il conclut en exposant que les partenariats complexes réels existant dans des pays sortant d’un conflit armé illustrent les caractéristiques compositionnelles habituellement attribuées aux partenariats complexes mais non les modes opérationnels attendus de ces partenariats, échouant en conséquence à exploiter leur valeur ajoutée.

Zusammenfassung

Komplexe Partnerschaften bzw. Partnerschaften mit einer Vielzahl von Stakeholdern - diejenigen Partnerschaften, die eine Reihe verschiedener Akteure einschließen, d.h. öffentliche, private oder bürgerliche Vertreter - gewinnen in verschiedenen Kontexten und Bereichen immer mehr an Beliebtheit. Dies ist auch in Ländern der Fall, in denen bewaffnete Auseinandersetzungen stattfanden und wo zahlreiche Spender aktiv Partnerschaften unterschiedlichster Arten fördern, die als eine Lösung für eine Reihe von Belangen betrachtet werden, die von Effizienz und Effektivität über Kompetenzübertragung und Vertrauensaufbau bis hin zur lokalen Eigenverantwortung reichen. Allerdings gibt es für diese Behauptungen nach wie vor nur wenige Beweise. Der vorliegende Beitrag konzentriert sich auf die wesentlichen Eigenschaften innerpartnerschaftlicher Dynamiken und beruft sich dabei auf eine empirische Primärforschung zu komplexen Partnerschaften in Kosovo, Afghanistan und der Demokratischen Republik Kongo. Abschließend wird demonstriert, dass tatsächlich bestehende komplexe Partnerschaften in Ländern, in denen bewaffnete Auseinandersetzungen stattfanden, die kompositionellen Merkmale aufweisen, die komplexen Partnerschaften in der Regel beigemessen werden, sie jedoch nicht über die derartigen Partnerschaften unterstellte Funktionsweise verfügen, wodurch es ihnen folglich nicht gelingt, ihren Mehrwert zu nutzen.

Resumen

Las asociaciones complejas o de partes interesadas múltiples – aquellas que incluyen a varios actores de diferentes tipos, es decir, público, privado o cívico - se están haciendo cada vez más populares en diferentes contextos y campos de la política. Esto ocurre también en los países que emergen de un conflicto armado, en los que muchos donantes están promoviendo activamente asociaciones de diferentes tipos que son vistas como una solución para una serie de preocupaciones desde la eficiencia y la efectividad al empoderamiento, la creación de confianza y la propiedad local. Sin embargo, la evidencia real que apoya estos supuestos sigue siendo escasa. El presente artículo se centra en varias características fundamentales de la dinámica intra-asociación mediante investigación empírica original en asociaciones complejas que operan en Kosovo, Afganistán y la RDC. Concluye mostrando que las asociaciones complejas existentes reales en países que emergen de conflictos armados muestran las características compositivas atribuidas normalmente a las asociaciones complejas pero no los modos de funcionamiento esperados de dichas asociaciones, lo que da como resultado el fracaso a la hora de explotar su valor añadido.

摘要

在各种不同的环境下和各种政策领域内,复杂的多方利益相关者合作伙伴关系越来越受欢迎,这种关系包括几种不同类型的参与方,如公共机构、私营部门或社会团体等。在武装冲突频发的国家中,这种情况也不无例外。在这些国家中,众多的捐助方都在积极地推动不同类型的合作伙伴关系产生,他们将这种关系看作是解决几大问题的途径,如权力的效能和效力,信任的建立和本地自主权。然而,能够证明这些假定的实际证据还寥寥无几。本篇论文通过对科索沃、阿富汗和刚果(金)境内存在的复杂合作伙伴关系展开基于经验的原始研究,重点论述了合作伙伴关系内部动态机制的几大核心特征。本文总结到,在武装冲突频发的国家内真实存在的复杂合作伙伴关系,展现出了复杂合作伙伴关系的典型组成特征,但没有展现出人们对这种合作伙伴关系所期待的运行模式。文章并没有探讨各方合作而产生的附加价值。

ملخص

شراكات أصحاب المصلحة معقدة أو متعددة - تلك التي تشمل العديد من الجهات الفاعلة من أنواع مختلفة، مثل القطاعين العام ، الخاص أو المجتمع المدني، - تزداد الشعبية في سياقات مختلفة وعبر مجالات السياسة. هذا هو الحال أيضا˝ في البلدان الخارجة من الصراعات المسلحة، حيث العديد من الجهات المانحة التي تعمل بنشاط على تعزيز الشراكات على إختلاف أنواعها والتي ينظر اليها كحل لعدد من المخاوف من الكفاءة والفعالية إلى التمكين، بناء الثقة، والملكية المحلية. مع ذلك، فإن الأدلة الفعلية التي تدعم هذه الافتراضات لا تزال نادرة. هذا المقال يركز على خصائص أساسية عدة من داخل شراكة ديناميكية من خلال البحوث التجريبية الأصلية على الشراكات المعقدة التي تعمل في كوسوفو وأفغانستان، وجمهورية الكونغو الديمقراطية. يختتم من خلال إظهار أن الشراكات الحقيقية المعقدة الموجودة في البلدان الخارجة من الصراع المسلح تشرح الخصائص التركيبية وعادة ما ترتبط بشراكات معقدة ولكن ليس في أساليب العمل المتوقع من مثل هذه الشراكات، فشل في استغلال القيمة المضافة نتيجة لذلك.

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Notes

  1. Other terms that describe these types of partnerships include ‘multi-stakeholder partnerships’, ‘multi- or tri-sectoral partnerships’ and ‘complex partnerships’. This article adopts the following definition developed in the course of the MultiPart project: ‘Multi-stakeholder Partnerships (MSPs) are arrangements that bring together major stakeholders—i.e. actors (private or public) that have a shared interest in the outcome and demonstrate some degree of ownership-to address a particular issue’, MultiPart. Theoretical and Methodological Framework and Guidance. p. 28, Available at www.multi-part.eu.

  2. See for example, Martens (2007), van Tongeren and van Empel (2007), Zadek and Radovich (2006), Zammit Zammit 2003.

  3. Hemmati (2002), Martens (2007).

  4. Brinkerhoff (2002b, p. 2).

  5. Glasbergen et al. (2007).

  6. Provan and Kenis (2008, pp. 229–252), Ring and van de Ven (1994, pp. 90–118).

  7. Hemmati (2002), Innes and Booher (2003, pp. 33–59), Gray (1985, pp. 911–936), Eden and Huxham (2001, pp. 351–369), Huxham (2000, pp. 337–357), Huxham and Macdonald (1992, pp. 50–56).

  8. Quoted in Dodds (2002).

  9. Chopra and Hohe (2004), Richmond (2001, pp. 317–348).

  10. The in-depth cases analysed in the framework of MultiPart project are: in Afghanistan—Disbandment of Illegal Armed Groups (DIAG), Micro-finance Investment Support Facility For Afghanistan (MISFA), The National Solidarity Program (NSP), Action Plan On Peace, Justice And Reconciliation (AP); in the DRC—Community-based Security Dialogue/Commissions in Ituri (ILSC), Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI), Appui A La Restauration De La Justice A L’est Du Congo (Rejusco), Sub-Program: Installation Of ‘Clinique Juridique’/Mobile Courts, Groupes de Réflexion sur les Questions Foncières (GRF); in Kosovo—The KPC Resettlement Program (KPC-RP), Active Labour Market Programme (ALMP), The Assembly Support Initiative (ASI), Sustainable Partnerships For Returns In Kosovo (SPARK). Case studies were based on a combination of desk and field research and prepared by the following institutions: Institute for Peace Research and Security Policy Hamburg (IFSH); Institute for Security and International Studies, Sofia (ISIS); Egmont Royal Institute for International Relations, Brussels; University of Amsterdam; Scuola Superiore Sant’Anna, Pisa; London School of Economics and Political Science; European Training and Research Centre for Human Rights and Democracy, Graz; Institute for Peace Research and Security Policy, Hamburg; University of Ljubljana-Faculty of Social Sciences; Centre for International Relations, University of Florence-Machiavelli Centre for Cold War Studies; University of Bradford-Centre for International Cooperation and Security. Field research was conducted in partnership with local research partners ‘Center for Policy and Human Development’ at Kabul University in Afghanistan, the Congolese ‘POLE Institute at Goma’, and the ‘Human Rights Center of the Prishtina University’ in Kosovo over the period from April 2009 to January 2010. For full reports of all case studies, please see the web-site (www.multi-part.eu) under the section “Publications and Bibliography”.

  11. For more detail please see www.multi-part.eu.

  12. Fowler (1998, pp. 137–159).

  13. Tschirgi (2004, p. 11).

  14. Brinkerhoff (2002b, pp. 1, 15).

  15. Keane (2010, p. 249).

  16. Skelcher and Sullivan (2008, pp. 751–771).

  17. The famous essay by Arnstein (1969) was written as a passionate critique of the top-down technocratic manner in which most of community development programmes were realised, paying lip service to participation and bringing no real benefit—either in practical material or in normative democratic terms—to community groups. The original ladder of Arnstein consists of eight steps, divided into three levels, the first being ‘non-participation’, when citizen participation is not taken seriously at all, the second ‘tokenism’, i.e. when citizen participation becomes part of policy discourse but is not really implemented in practice with citizens being simply ‘informed’ or ‘asked their opinions’ about a certain policy but having no impact on decisions made, and finally the third one is labelled ‘citizen power’ and implies real citizen engagement in decision-finding, decision-making, implementation, and benefit sharing.

  18. Lasker et al. (2001, p.182).

  19. Huxham (2000, p. 338).

  20. Gazley (2010, pp. 653–673).

  21. Huxham and Vangen (2004, p. 200).

  22. Andrews and Entwistle (2010, 679–701).

  23. Johnson and Wilson (2006, p. 71).

  24. Hudock (1995, pp. 653–667).

  25. Skelcher and Sullivan (2008, p. 759).

  26. As developed by Lukes (1974).

  27. Fowler (1998, pp. 137–159; 2000, pp. 1–13), Lister (2000, pp. 227–239), Robinson et al. (2000).

  28. Fowler (2000, pp. 1–13).

  29. Crawford (2003, p. 139).

  30. Lister (2000, p. 235).

  31. Brinkerhoff (2002b, p. 2).

  32. For example, Johnson and Wilson (2006, pp. 71–80).

  33. OECD (2005, p. 3–4).

  34. Ashman (2001, pp. 74–98), Crawford (2003, pp. 139–159), Ebrahim (2001, pp. 79–101), Lister (2000, pp. 227–239).

  35. Elbers and Lau (2011, pp. 795–812).

  36. See the list of cases under footnote 10.

  37. See CICS (2009, p. 29).

  38. Pishchikova and Perillo (2010).

  39. CIMA (2010, pp. 229–271, 256).

  40. Taken from Kamphuis (2010, pp. 133–175).

  41. Goodwin-Groen (2003, pp. 1–3), quoted in Kamphuis (2010).

  42. World Bank (1996, p. 8), quoted in Kamphuis (2010).

  43. Najib (2010).

  44. Taken from Risch and Hoebeke (2010, pp. 178–217, 185).

  45. Risch and Hoebeke (2010, p. 194, 197, 198).

  46. Reported by Narten (2010, pp. 106–177, 131, 140).

  47. UNDP, NATO/KFOR, the US and Belgian office.

  48. Prime Minister’s Office, the Ministry of Labour and Social Welfare, the KPC Commander.

  49. UNDP (2009, pp. 119–120).

  50. Narten (2010, p. 133).

  51. APPK was made subject to a UNDP Audit team, see UNDP/APPK. UNDP Kosovo & APPK Project Document: KPC Resettlement Programme—Component B. UNDP Kosovo internal document, 14 November 2008, quoted in Narten (2010, p. 133).

  52. From interviews with the Minister of Labour and Social Welfare, with the Head of the Assembly Committee for Internal Affairs and Security, and the War Veterans Association officials, quoted in Narten (2010, p. 138).

  53. Ibid, p. 140.

  54. Ibid, p. 137.

  55. Skelcher and Sullivan (2008).

  56. Brinkerhoff (2002a).

  57. Narten (2010, pp. 134–135).

  58. Other international actors closely involved in DIAG initiation are UNAMA, ISAF, CFC-A and a number of international donors.

  59. Interview quoted in Attanassoff and Plamen (2010, pp. 216–273, 245).

Abbreviations

CGAP:

Consultative group to assist the poor

DDR:

Disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration

DIAG:

Disbandment of illegal armed groups

DRC:

The Democratic Republic of Congo

ILSC:

Community-based security dialogue/commissions in Ituri

KLA:

Kosovo liberation army

KPC-RP:

The kosovo protection corps resettlement programme

LID:

Local initiative department

MFI:

Micro-finance institution

MISFA:

Micro-finance investment support facility for Afghanistan

MoD:

Ministry of defence

MoI:

Ministry of interior

NK:

Nyumba Kumi (‘ten houses’)

RHA:

Reseau Haki na Amani (Justice and Peace)

UN/ANBP:

United Nations Afghanistan National Beginnings Programme

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Acknowledgments

This article draws on several case studies and secondary research conducted in the course of the Collaborative Project 'MultiPart' (Multi-Stakeholder Partnerships for Post-Conflict Reconstruction: The Role of the EU), funded under the Seventh Framework Programme of the European Community for research, technological development and demonstration activities—Socio-economic and Humanities research, grant agreement no 217564. The author is thankful to all project participants for their engagement and availability.

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Pishchikova, K. Greater Synergy and Improved Collaboration: Do Complex Partnerships Deliver on the Promise in Countries Emerging From Armed Conflict?. Voluntas 25, 2–27 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-012-9313-x

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