Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Stereotype activation versus application: how teachers process and judge information about students from ethnic minorities and with low socioeconomic background

  • Published:
Social Psychology of Education Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Teachers develop stereotypical expectations about students, but this categorical knowledge can influence their judgments about students. Although teachers’ stereotypical expectations about students have been investigated in the educational domain, this research has mostly measured only the teachers’ judgments. However, the judgment is only the outcome of preceding information processing, which consists of different stages that might be influenced by social categories. Drawing on dual process theories of impression and judgment formation, we investigated teachers’ information processing and judgment processes. In Study 1, we compared the processing of neutral information and information about a racial minority student. In Study 2, we investigated how teachers derive judgments of students from families with high versus low socioeconomic backgrounds. Both studies revealed that perception and memory were affected by social categories but showed no impact of categorical information on teachers’ judgments. Thus, the results indicated stereotype activation but not application, as teachers seemed to suppress their stereotypical expectations when it comes to the judgment. The implications of the results for future research as well as for teacher training are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Alvidrez, J., & Weinstein, R. (1999). Early teacher perceptions and later student academic achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 731–746. doi:10.1037//0022-0663.91.4.731.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ansalone, G., & Biafora, F. (2004). Elementary school teachers’ perceptions and attitudes to the educational structure of tracking. Education, 125, 249–260.

    Google Scholar 

  • Auwarter, A. E., & Aruguete, M. S. (2008). Effects of student gender and socioeconomic status on teacher perceptions. The Journal of Educational Research, 101, 243–246. doi:10.3200/JOER.101.4.243-246.

  • Babad, E. Y., Inbar, J., & Rosenthal, R. (1982). Pygmalion, Galatea, and the Golem: Investigations of biased and unbiased teachers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 74, 459–474. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.74.4.459.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baldwin, M. W., Fehr, B., Keedian, E., Seidel, M., & Thomson, D. W. (1993). An exploration of the relational schemata underlying attachment styles: Self-report and lexical decision approaches. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 19, 746–754. doi:10.1177/0146167293196010.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bargh, J. A. (1997). The automaticity of everyday life. In R. S. Wyer (Ed.), Advances in social cognition (pp. 1–61). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Boer, H., Bosker, R. J., & van der Werf, M. P. C. (2010). Sustainability of teacher expectation bias effects on long-term student performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102, 168–179. doi:10.1037/a0017289.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bonvin, P. (2003). The role of teacher attitudes and judgment in decision-making: The case of grade retention. European Educational Research Journal, 2, 277. doi:10.2304/eerj.2003.2.2.6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brewer, M. B. (1988). A dual process model of impression formation. In R. S. Wyer & T. K. Srull (Eds.), Advances in Social Cognition (pp. 1–36). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brewer, M. B., & Lui, L. N. (1989). The primacy of age and sex in the structure of person categories. Social Cognition, 7, 262–274.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chang, D. F., & Sue, S. (2003). The effects of race and problem type on teachers’ assessments of student behavior. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71, 235–242. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.71.2.235.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chang, D. F., & Demyan, A. L. (2007). Teachers’ stereotypes of Asian, Black, and White students. School Psychology Quarterly, 22, 91–114. doi:10.1037/1045-3830.22.2.91.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dee, T. S. (2005). A teacher like me: Does race, ethnicity, or gender matter? The American Economic Review, 95, 158–165. doi:10.1257/000282805774670446.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Destatis. (2011). Ein Fünftel der Bevölkerung in Deutschland hatte 2010 einen Migrationshintergrund [In 2010, a fifth of the German population had an immigration background]. Retrieved October 29, 2012, from https://www.destatis.de/DE/PresseService/Presse/Pressemitteilungen/2011/09/PD11_355_122.html?nn=50730.

  • Devine, P. G. (1989). Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 5–18. doi:10.1037//0022-3514.56.1.5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diamond, J. B., Randolph, A., & Spillane, J. P. (2004). Teachers’ expectations and sense of responsibility for student learning: The importance of race, class, and organizational habitus. Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 35, 75–98. doi:10.1525/aeq.2004.35.1.75.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dovidio, J. F., Kawakami, K., Johnson, C., Johnson, B., & Howard, A. (1997). On the nature of prejudice: Automatic and controlled processes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 33, 510–540. doi:10.1006/jesp.1997.1331.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Elhoweris, H., Mutua, K., Alsheikh, N., & Holloway, P. (2005). Effect of children’s ethnicity on teachers’ referral and recommendation decisions in gifted and talented programs. Remedial and Special Education, 26, 25–31. doi:10.1177/07419325050260010401.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Elhoweris, H. (2008). Teacher judgment in identifying gifted/talented students. Multicultural Education, 15, 35–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fazio, R. H. (2001). On the automatic activation of associated evaluations: An overview. Cognition and Emotion, 15, 115–141. doi:10.1080/0269993004200024.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fazio, R. H., & Olson, M. A. (2003). Implicit measures in social cognition research: Their meaning and use. Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 297–327. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145225.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fazio, R. H., Jackson, J. R., Dunton, B. C., & Williams, C. J. (1995). Variability in automatic activation as an unobtrusive measure of racial attitudes: A bona fide pipeline? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 1013–1027. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.6.1013.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fiedler, K., Walther, E., Freytag, P., & Plessner, H. (2002). Judgment biases in a simulated classroom–a cognitive-environmental approach. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 88, 527–561. doi:10.1006/obhd.2001.2981.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fiske, S. T., & Neuberg, S. L. (1990). A continuum of impression formation from category-based to individuating processes: Influences of information and motivation on attention and interpretation. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Vol. 23, pp. 1–74). New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fiske, S. T., Lin, M., & Neuberg, S. L. (1999). The continuum model. Ten years later. In S. Chaiken & Y. Trope (Eds.), Dual process theories in social psychology (pp. 231–254). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Freitag, M., & Schlicht, R. (2009). Educational federalism in Germany: Foundations of social inequality in education. Governance, 22, 47–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frey, A. (2002). Predictors of placement recommendations for children with behavioral or emotional disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 27, 126–136.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gawronski, B., Deutsch, R., Mbirkou, S., Seibt, B., & Strack, F. (2008). When “Just Say No” is not enough: Affirmation versus negation training and the reduction of automatic stereotype activation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44, 370–377. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2006.12.004.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gilbert, D. T., & Hixon, J. G. (1991). The trouble of thinking: Activation and application of stereotypic beliefs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 509–517. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.60.4.509.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Glock, S., Krolak-Schwerdt, S., Klapproth, F., & Böhmer, M. (2013). Beyond judgment bias: How students’ ethnicity and academic profile consistency influence teachers’ tracking judgments. Social Psychology of Education, 16, 555–573. doi:10.1007/s11218-013-9227-5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gordijn, E. H., Hindriks, I., Koomen, W., Dijksterhuis, A., & Van Knippenberg, A. (2004). Consequences of stereotype suppression and internal suppression motivation: A self-regulation approach. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 212–224. doi:10.1177/0146167203259935.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guskin, S. L., Peng, C.-Y. J., & Simon, M. (1992). Do teachers react to “Multiple Intelligences”? Effects of teachers’ stereotypes on judgments and expectancies for students with diverse patterns of giftedness/talent. Gifted Child Quarterly, 36, 32–37. doi:10.1177/001698629203600108.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haberlandt, K. (1994). Methods in reading research. In M. A. Gernsbacher (Ed.), Handbook of psycholinguistics (pp. 1–31). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haller, E. J., & Davis, S. A. (1980). Does socioeconomic status bias the assignment of elementary school students to reading groups? American Educational Research Journal, 17, 409–418. doi:10.3102/00028312017004409.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haller, E. J., & Davis, S. A. (1981). Teacher perceptions, parental social status and grouping for reading instruction. Sociology of Education, 54, 162–174.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haller, E. J. (1985). Pupil race and elementary school ability grouping: Are teachers biased against Black children? American Educational Research Journal, 22, 465–483. doi:10.3102/00028312022004465.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hamilton, D. L., & Sherman, S. J. (1996). Perceiving persons and groups. Psychological Review, 103, 336–355. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.103.2.336.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harvey, D. G., & Slatin, G. T. (1975). The relationship between child’s SES and teacher expectations: A test of the middle-class bias hypothesis. Social Forces, 54, 140–159. doi:10.1093/sf/54.1.140.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman, C., & Hurst, N. (1990). Gender stereotypes: Perception or rationalization. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 197–208. doi:10.1037//0022-3514.58.2.197.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • De Houwer, J. (2006). What are implicit measures and why are we using them? In R. W. Wiers & A. W. Stacy (Eds.), The handbook of implicit cognition and addiction (pp. 11–28). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publisher.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Jussim, L. (1989). Teacher expectations: Self-fulfilling prophecies, perceptual biases, and accuracy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 469–480. doi:10.1037//0022-3514.57.3.469.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Karing, C., Matthäi, J., & Artelt, C. (2011). Genauigkeit von Lehrerurteilen über die Lesekompetenz ihrer Schülerinnen und Schüler in der Sekundarstufe I - Eine Frage der Spezifität? [Lower secondary school teacher judgment accuracy of students’ reading competence - A matter of specifity?]. Zeitschrift für Pädagogische Psychologie, 25, 159–172. doi:10.1024/1010-0652/a000041.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kawakami, K., Dovidio, J. F., Moll, J., Hermsen, S., & Russin, A. (2000). Just say no (to stereotyping): Effects of training in the negation of stereotypic associations on stereotype activation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 871–888. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.78.5.871.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • KMK—Sekretariat der Ständigen Konferenz der Kultusminister der Länder in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland. (2010). Übergang von der Grundschule in Schulen des Sekundarbereichs I und Förderung, Beobachtung und Orientierung in den Jahrgangsstufen 5 und 6 (sog. Orientierungsstufe) [Transition from primary to secondary schools and advancement, observation, and orientation. Retrieved August 23, 2011, from http://www.kmk.org/fileadmin/veroeffentlichungen_beschluesse/2010/2010_10_18-Uebergang-Grundschule-S_eI1-Orientierungsstufe.pdf.

  • Kristen, C., & Granato, N. (2007). The educational attainment of the second generation in Germany: Social origins and ethnic inequality. Ethnicities, 7, 343–366. doi:10.1177/1468796807080233.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krolak-Schwerdt, S., & Kneer, J. (2006). Lesezeiten- und Blickbewegungsverfahren als Methode für die soziale Kognitionsforschung [Reading time and eye movement methods to study the processing of social information]. Zeitschrift für Sozialpsychologie, 37, 141–150.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krolak-Schwerdt, S., & Rummer, R. (2005). Der Einfluss von Expertise auf den Prozess der schulischen Leistungsbeurteilung [The influence of expertise on the process of judging academic achievement]. Zeitschrift für Entwicklungspsychologie und Pädagogische Psychologie, 37, 205–213.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krolak-Schwerdt, S., Böhmer, M., & Gräsel, C. (2013). The impact of accountability on teachers’ assessments of student performance: A social cognitive analysis. Social Psychology of Education, 16, 215–239. doi:10.1007/s11218-013-9215-9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krolak-Schwerdt, S., Junker, N., Roth, R., & Wintermantel, M. (2008). Processing person descriptions: How does text coherence influence encoding and retrieval of person information? Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 27, 235–253. doi:10.1177/0261927X08318018.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kunda, Z., & Spencer, S. J. (2003). When do stereotypes come to mind and when do they color judgment? A goal-based theoretical framework for stereotype activation and application. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 522–544. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.129.4.522.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kunda, Z., Davies, P. G., Adams, B. D., & Spencer, S. J. (2002). The dynamic time course of stereotype activation: Activation, dissipation, and resurrection. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 283–299. doi:10.1037//0022-3514.82.3.283.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Langer, A., Langer, H., & Theimer, H. (1993). Lehrer beobachten und beurteilen Schüler [Teachers observe and assess students]. München, Germany: Oldenbourg.

    Google Scholar 

  • Macrae, C. N., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (2000). Social cognition: Thinking categorically about others. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 93–120. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.51.1.93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Macrae, C. N., Bodenhausen, G. V., & Milne, A. B. (1998). Saying no to unwanted thoughts: Self-focus and the regulation of mental life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 578–589. doi:10.1037//0022-3514.74.3.578.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Macrae, C. N., Bodenhausen, G. V., Milne, A. B., & Jetten, J. (1994). Out of mind but back in sight: Stereotypes on the rebound. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 808–817. doi:10.1037//0022-3514.67.5.808.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Macrae, C. N., Milne, A. B., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (1994). Stereotypes as energy-saving devices: A peek inside the cognitive toolbox. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 37–47. doi:10.1037//0022-3514.66.1.37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marx, S. (2003). Entanglements of altruism, whiteness, and deficit thinking. Education for Urban Minorities, 2, 41–46.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCombs, R. C., & Gay, J. (1988). Effects of race, class, and IQ information on judgments of parochial grade school teachers. The Journal of Social Psychology, 128, 647–652. doi:10.1080/00224545.1988.9922918.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Monteith, M. J., Sherman, J. W., & Devine, P. G. (1998). Suppression as a stereotype control strategy. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 2, 63–82. doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0201_4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moors, A., & De Houwer, J. (2006). Automaticity: A theoretical and conceptual analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 297–326. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.2.297.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Neal, L. V., McCay, A. D., Webb-Johnson, G., & Bridget, S. T. (2003). The effects of African American movement styles on teachers’ perceptions and reactions. The Journal of Special Education, 37, 49–57. doi:10.1177/00224669030370010501.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parks, F. R., & Kennedy, J. H. (2007). The impact of race, physical attractiveness, and gender on education majors’ and teachers’ perceptions of student competence. Journal of Black Studies, 37, 936–943. doi:10.1177/0021934705285955.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pietsch, M., & Stubbe, T. C. (2007). Inequality in the transition from primary to secondary school: School choices and educational disparities in Germany. European Educational Research Journal, 6, 424–445. doi:10.2304/eerj.2007.6.4.424.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pigott, R. L., & Cowen, E. L. (2000). Teacher race, child race, racial congruence, and teacher ratings of children’s school adjustment. Journal of School Psychology, 38, 177–196. doi:10.1016/S0022-4405(99)00041-2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Plant, E. A., & Devine, P. G. (1998). Internal and external motivation to respond without prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 811–832. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.75.3.811.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Podell, D. M., & Soodak, L. C. (1993). Teacher efficacy and bias in special education referrals. The Journal of Educational Research, 86, 247–253. doi:10.1080/00220671.1993.9941836.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Richeson, J. A., & Nussbaum, R. J. (2004). The impact of multiculturalism versus color-blindness on racial bias. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40, 417–423. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2003.09.002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenthal, R., & Jacobson, L. (1968). Pygmalion in the classroom. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.

    Google Scholar 

  • Santavirta, N., Solovieva, S., & Theorell, T. (2007). The association between job strain and emotional exhaustion in a cohort of 1.028 Finnish teachers. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 77, 213–228. doi:10.1348/000709905X92045.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schnabel, K. U., Alfeld, C., Eccles, J. S., Köller, O., & Baumert, J. (2002). Parental influence on students’ educational choices in the United States and Germany: Different ramifications–Same effect? Journal of Vocational Behavior, 60, 178–198. doi:10.1006/jvbe.2001.1863.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seidel, T., Blomberg, G., & Renkl, A. (2013). Instructional strategies for using video in teacher education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 34, 56–65. Elsevier Ltd. doi:10.1016/j.tate.2013.03.004.

  • Sirin, S. R. (2005). Socioeconomic status and academic achievement: A meta-analytic review of research. Review of Educational Research, 73, 417–453. doi:10.3102/00346543075003417.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sleeter, C. (2008). Preparing White teachers for diverse students. In S. Feiman-Nemser & D. J. McIntyre (Eds.), Handbook of Research on Teacher Education (3rd ed., pp. 559–582). New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, E. R. (1998). Mental representation and memory. In D. T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), Handbook of social cognition (Vol. 1, pp. 391–445). New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Srull, T. K. (1984). Methodological techniques for the study of person memory and social cognition. In R. S. Wyer & T. K. Srull (Eds.), Handbook of social cognition (Vol. 2, pp. 1–72). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stangor, C., & McMillan, D. (1992). Memory for expectancy-congruent and expectancy-incongruent information: A review of the social and social developmental literatures. Psychological Bulletin, 111, 42–61. doi:10.1037//0033-2909.111.1.42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Südkamp, A., Kaiser, J., & Möller, J. (2012). Accuracy of teachers’ judgments of students’ academic achievement: A meta-analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104, 743–762. doi:10.1037/a0027627.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, S. E., & Crocker, J. (1981). Schematic bases of social information processing. In E. T. Higgins, C. P. Herman, & M. P. Zanna (Eds.), Social Cognition: The Ontario symposium (pp. 89–134). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tenenbaum, H. R., & Ruck, M. D. (2007). Are teachers’ expectations different for racial minority than for European American students? A meta-analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99, 253–273. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.99.2.253.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wiggan, G. (2007). Race, school achievement, and educational inequality: Toward a student-based inquiry perspective. Review of Educational Research, 77, 310–333. doi:10.3102/003465430303947.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wyer, R. S., & Srull, T. K. (1986). Human cognition in its social context. Psychological Review, 93, 322–359. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.93.3.322.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wyer, R. S., & Srull, T. K. (1988). Understanding social knowledge: If only the data could speak for themselves. In D. Bar-Tal & A. W. Kruglanski (Eds.), The social psychology of knowledge (pp. 142–192). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wyer, R. S., & Srull, T. K. (1989). Memory and cognition in its social context. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wyer, R. S., Sherman, J. W., & Stroessner, S. J. (1998). The spontaneous suppression of racial stereotypes. Social Cognition, 16, 340–352. doi:10.1521/soco.1998.16.3.340.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Conflict of interest

The authors have no competing interests.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Education, Bergische Universität Wuppertal, Gaußstraße 20, 42119, Wuppertal, Germany

    Sabine Glock

  2. University of Luxembourg, Luxembourg City, Luxembourg

    Sabine Krolak-Schwerdt

Authors
  1. Sabine Glock
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Sabine Krolak-Schwerdt
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Sabine Glock.

Additional information

This research was funded by the German Research Foundation (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, DFG; Grant KR 2162/3-1).

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Glock, S., Krolak-Schwerdt, S. Stereotype activation versus application: how teachers process and judge information about students from ethnic minorities and with low socioeconomic background. Soc Psychol Educ 17, 589–607 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-014-9266-6

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-014-9266-6

Keywords

Search

Navigation