Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

History of Solar Magnetic Fields Since George Ellery Hale

  • Published:
Space Science Reviews Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

As my own work on the Sun’s magnetic field started exactly 50 years ago at Crimea in the USSR, I have been a participant in the field during nearly half the time span since Hale’s discovery in 1908 of magnetic fields in sunspots. The present historical account is accompanied by photos from my personal slide collection, which show a number of the leading personalities who advanced the field in different areas: measurement techniques, from photographic to photoelectric and imaging methods in spectro-polarimetry; theoretical foundations of MHD and the origin of cosmic magnetic fields (birth of dynamo theory); the quest for increased angular resolution from national projects to international consortia (for instruments both on ground and in space); introduction of the Hanle effect in astrophysics and the Second Solar Spectrum as its playground; small-scale nature of the field, the fundamental resolution limit, and transcending it by resolution-independent diagnostics.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10
Fig. 11
Fig. 12
Fig. 13
Fig. 14
Fig. 15
Fig. 16
Fig. 17
Fig. 18
Fig. 19
Fig. 20
Fig. 21

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • H. Alfvén, Existence of electromagnetic-hydrodynamic waves. Nature 150, 405–406 (1942)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • H. Alfvén, Solar magnetic fields, in Magnetism and the Cosmos, ed. by W.R. Hindmarsh, F.J. Lowes, P.H. Roberts, F.R. Runcorn (Oliver & Boyd, Edinburgh, 1967), pp. 246–261

    Google Scholar 

  • H. Alfvén, P. Carlqvist, Currents in the solar atmosphere and a theory of solar flares. Sol. Phys. 1, 220–228 (1967)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • H.W. Babcock, The solar magnetograph. Astrophys. J. 118, 387 (1953)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • H.W. Babcock, The topology of the Sun’s magnetic field and the 22-year cycle. Astrophys. J. 133, 572–587 (1961)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • V. Bommier, Quantum theory of the Hanle effect. II – Effect of level-crossings and anti-level-crossings on the polarization of the D3 helium line of solar prominences. Astron. Astrophys. 87, 109–120 (1980)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • J.W. Brault, Solar Fourier transform spectroscopy. Oss. Mem. Oss. Astrofis. Arcetri 106, 33 (1978)

    Google Scholar 

  • J.W. Brault, Fourier transform spectroscopy, in High Resolution in Astronomy. Fifteenth Advanced Course of the Swiss Society of Astronomy and Astrophysics, ed. by A.O. Benz, M. Huber, M. Mayor (Geneva Obs., Sauverny, 1985), pp. 3–61

    Google Scholar 

  • G. Brückner, Photoelektrische Polarisationsmessungen an Resonanzlinien im Sonnenspektrum. Mit 6 Textabbildungen. Z. Astrophys. 58, 73 (1963)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • G.A. Chapman, N.R. Sheeley Jr., The photospheric network. Sol. Phys. 5, 442–461 (1968)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • T.G. Cowling, The magnetic field of sunspots. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 94, 39–48 (1933)

    Article  ADS  MATH  Google Scholar 

  • S. Dumont, J.-C. Pecker, A. Omont, Theoretical study of the Fraunhofer lines polarization: the case of Ca i 4227. Sol. Phys. 28, 271–288 (1973)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • W.M. Elsasser, Induction effects in terrestrial magnetism part I. Theory. Phys. Rev. 69, 106–116 (1946)

    Article  ADS  MathSciNet  MATH  Google Scholar 

  • W.M. Elsasser, Hydromagnetism. I. A review. Am. J. Phys. 23, 590–609 (1955)

    Article  ADS  MATH  Google Scholar 

  • O. Engvold, Large Earth-based Solar Telescope – LEST. Adv. Space Res. 11, 157–168 (1991)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • A. Gandorfer, The Second Solar Spectrum: A High Spectral Resolution Polarimetric Survey of Scattering Polarization at the Solar Limb in Graphical Representation. Volume I: 4625 Å to 6995 Å (VdF, Zurich, 2000)

    Google Scholar 

  • A. Gandorfer, The Second Solar Spectrum: A High Spectral Resolution Polarimetric Survey of Scattering Polarization at the Solar Limb in Graphical Representation. Volume II: 3910 Å to 4630 Å (VdF, Zurich, 2002)

    Google Scholar 

  • A. Gandorfer, The Second Solar Spectrum: A High Spectral Resolution Polarimetric Survey of Scattering Polarization at the Solar Limb in Graphical Representation. Volume III: 3160 Å to 3915 Å (VdF, Zurich, 2005)

    Google Scholar 

  • G.E. Hale, On the probable existence of a magnetic field in Sun-spots. Astrophys. J. 28, 315 (1908)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • G.E. Hale, F.H. Seares, A. van Maanen, F. Ellerman, The general magnetic field of the Sun. Apparent variation of field-strength with level in the solar atmosphere. Astrophys. J. 47, 206–254 (1918)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • G.E. Hale, F. Ellerman, S.B. Nicholson, A.H. Joy, The magnetic polarity of Sun-spots. Astrophys. J. 49, 153–178 (1919)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • W. Hanle, Über magnetische Beeinflussung der Polarisation der Resonanzfluoreszenz. Z. Phys. 30, 93–105 (1924)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • J.W. Harvey, Observations of small-scale photospheric magnetic fields. Highlights Astron. 4, 223 (1977)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • K.L. Harvey, S.F. Martin, Ephemeral active regions. Sol. Phys. 32, 389–402 (1973)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • R. Ishikawa, T. Bando, D. Fujimura, H. Hara, R. Kano, T. Kobiki, N. Narukage, S. Tsuneta, K. Ueda, H. Wantanabe, K. Kobayashi, J. Trujillo Bueno, R. Manso Sainz, J. Stepan, B. de Pontieu, M. Carlsson, R. Casini, A sounding rocket experiment for spectropolarimetric observations with the \(\mbox{Ly}_{\alpha}\) line at 121.6 nm (CLASP), in Solar Polarization 6, ed. by J.R. Kuhn, D.M. Harrington, H. Lin, S.V. Berdyugina, J. Trujillo-Bueno, S.L. Keil, T. Rimmele. Astronomical Society of the Pacific Conference Series, vol. 437 (2011), pp. 287–295

    Google Scholar 

  • K.O. Kiepenheuer, Joint Organization for Solar Observations (JOSO), in Proceedings of the First European Astronomical Meeting, Solar Activity and Related Interplanetary and Terrestrial Phenomena, ed. by J. Xanthakis (Springer, Heidelberg, 1973), p. 165

    Google Scholar 

  • E. Landi Degl’Innocenti, Polarization in spectral lines. I – A unifying theoretical approach. Sol. Phys. 85, 3–31 (1983)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • E. Landi Degl’Innocenti, M. Landolfi, Polarization in Spectral Lines. Astrophysics and Space Science Library, vol. 307 (Kluwer, Dordrecht, 2004)

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • J. Larmor, How could a rotating body such as the sun become a magnet? Rep. - Br. Assoc. Adv. Sci. 87, 159–160 (1919)

    Google Scholar 

  • R.B. Leighton, Observations of solar magnetic fields in plage regions. Astrophys. J. 130, 366 (1959)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • R.B. Leighton, A magneto-kinematic model of the solar cycle. Astrophys. J. 156, 1–26 (1969)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • R.B. Leighton, R.W. Noyes, G.W. Simon, Velocity fields in the solar atmosphere. I. Preliminary report. Astrophys. J. 135, 474 (1962)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • J.L. Leroy, G. Ratier, V. Bommier, The polarization of the D3 emission line in prominences. Astron. Astrophys. 54, 811–816 (1977)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • W.C. Livingston, J. Harvey, C. Slaughter, D. Trumbo, Solar magnetograph employing integrated diode arrays. Appl. Opt. 15, 40–52 (1976)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • K. Lundmark, Internal motions of Messier 33. Astrophys. J. 63, 67–71 (1926)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • G. Moruzzi, F. Strumia (eds.), The Hanle Effect and Level-Crossing Spectroscopy (Plenum Press, New York, 1991)

    Google Scholar 

  • K.N. Nagendra, J.O. Stenflo, Z.Q. Qu, M. Sampoorna (eds.), Solar Polarization 7. Astronomical Society of the Pacific Conference Series, vol. 489 (2014)

    Google Scholar 

  • Y. Öhman, Astronomical consequences of the polarization of fluorescence. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 89, 479–482 (1929)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • E.N. Parker, Hydromagnetic dynamo models. Astrophys. J. 122, 293 (1955)

    Article  ADS  MathSciNet  Google Scholar 

  • E.N. Parker, Hydraulic concentration of magnetic fields in the solar photosphere. VI – Adiabatic cooling and concentration in downdrafts. Astrophys. J. 221, 368–377 (1978)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • H. Povel, Imaging Stokes polarimetry with piezoelastic modulators and charge-coupled-device image sensors. Opt. Eng. 34, 1870–1878 (1995)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • H.P. Povel, Ground-based instrumentation for solar magnetic field studies, with special emphasis on the Zurich imaging polarimeters ZIMPOL-I and II, in Magnetic Fields Across the Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram, ed. by G. Mathys, S.K. Solanki, D.T. Wickramasinghe. Astronomical Society of the Pacific Conference Series, vol. 248 (2001), pp. 543–552

    Google Scholar 

  • D.N. Rachkovsky, Magneto-optical effects in spectral lines of sunspots. Izv. Krym. Astrofiz. Obs. 27, 148–161 (1962a)

    Google Scholar 

  • D.N. Rachkovsky, Magnetic rotation effects in spectral lines. Izv. Krym. Astrofiz. Obs. 28, 259–270 (1962b)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • A. Severny, Solar magnetic fields. Space Sci. Rev. 3, 451–486 (1964)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • A.B. Severny, Magnetic fields of the Sun and stars (in Russian). Usp. Fiz. Nauk 88, 3–50 (1966)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • N.R. Sheeley Jr., Observations of small-scale solar magnetic fields. Sol. Phys. 1, 171–179 (1967)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • N.R. Sheeley Jr., C.R. DeVore, J.P. Boris, Simulations of the mean solar magnetic field during sunspot cycle 21. Sol. Phys. 98, 219–239 (1985)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • S.K. Solanki, P. Barthol, S. Danilovic, A. Feller, A. Gandorfer, J. Hirzberger, T.L. Riethmüller, M. Schüssler, J.A. Bonet, V. Martínez Pillet, J.C. del Toro Iniesta, V. Domingo, J. Palacios, M. Knölker, N. Bello González, T. Berkefeld, M. Franz, W. Schmidt, A.M. Title, SUNRISE: instrument, mission, data, and first results. Astrophys. J. 723, 127–133 (2010)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • H.C. Spruit, E.G. Zweibel, Convective instability of thin flux tubes. Sol. Phys. 62, 15–22 (1979)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • M. Steenbeck, F. Krause, Zur Dynamotheorie stellarer und planetarer Magnetfelder I. Berechnung sonnenähnlicher Wechselfeldgeneratoren. Astron. Nachr. 291, 49–84 (1969)

    Article  ADS  MATH  Google Scholar 

  • J.O. Stenflo, Hale’s attempts to determine the Sun’s general magnetic field. Sol. Phys. 14, 263–273 (1970)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • J.O. Stenflo, Magnetic-field structure of the photospheric network. Sol. Phys. 32, 41–63 (1973)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • J.O. Stenflo, Resonance-line polarization. V – Quantum-mechanical interference between states of different total angular momentum. Astron. Astrophys. 84, 68–74 (1980)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • J.O. Stenflo, The Hanle effect and the diagnostics of turbulent magnetic fields in the solar atmosphere. Sol. Phys. 80, 209–226 (1982)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • J.O. Stenflo, LEST – a large international solar telescope for the 1990s. Vistas Astron. 28, 571–576 (1985)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • J.O. Stenflo, Observational constraints on a ‘hidden’, turbulent magnetic field of the Sun. Sol. Phys. 114, 1–19 (1987)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • J.O. Stenflo, Strong and weak magnetic fields: nature of the small-scale flux elements, in IAU Colloq. 141: The Magnetic and Velocity Fields of Solar Active Regions, ed. by H. Zirin, G. Ai, H. Wang. Astronomical Society of the Pacific Conference Series, vol. 46, (1993), pp. 205–214

    Google Scholar 

  • J.O. Stenflo, Solar Magnetic Fields – Polarized Radiation Diagnostics (Kluwer, Dordrecht, 1994)

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • J.O. Stenflo, Basal magnetic flux and the local solar dynamo. Astron. Astrophys. 547, 93 (2012)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • J.O. Stenflo, Horizontal or vertical magnetic fields on the quiet Sun. Angular distributions and their height variations. Astron. Astrophys. 555, 132 (2013a)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • J.O. Stenflo, Solar magnetic fields as revealed by Stokes polarimetry. Astron. Astrophys. Rev. 21, 66 (2013b)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • J.O. Stenflo, Nature of quiet-Sun magnetic fields, in Solar Polarization 7, ed. by K.N. Nagendra, J.O. Stenflo, Z.Q. Qu, M. Sampoorna. Astronomical Society of the Pacific Conference Series, vol. 489 (2014), pp. 3–19

    Google Scholar 

  • J.O. Stenflo, D. Dravins, N. Wihlborg, A. Bruns, V.K. Prokofev, I.A. Zhitnik, H. Biverot, L. Stenmark, Search for spectral line polarization in the solar vacuum ultraviolet. Sol. Phys. 66, 13–19 (1980)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • J.O. Stenflo, D. Twerenbold, J.W. Harvey, Coherent scattering in the solar spectrum – survey of linear polarization in the range 3165–4230 Å. Astron. Astrophys. Suppl. Ser. 52, 161–180 (1983a)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • J.O. Stenflo, D. Twerenbold, J.W. Harvey, J.W. Brault, Coherent scattering in the solar spectrum – survey of linear polarization in the range 4200–9950 Å. Astron. Astrophys. Suppl. Ser. 54, 505–514 (1983b)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • J.O. Stenflo, S. Solanki, J.W. Harvey, J.W. Brault, Diagnostics of solar magnetic fluxtubes using a Fourier transform spectrometer. Astron. Astrophys. 131, 333–346 (1984)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • V.E. Stepanov, The absorption coefficient of atoms in the case of reverse Zeeman effect for an arbitrary directed magnetic field. Izv. Krym. Astrofiz. Obs. 18, 136–150 (1958a)

    Google Scholar 

  • V.E. Stepanov, On the theory of the formation of absorption lines in a magnetic field and the profile of Fe \(\lambda\) 6173 Å in the solar sunspot spectrum. Izv. Krym. Astrofiz. Obs. 19, 20–45 (1958b)

    Google Scholar 

  • V.E. Stepanov, A.B. Severny, A photoelectric method for measurements of the magnitude and direction of the solar magnetic field. Izv. Krym. Astrofiz. Obs. 28, 166–193 (1962)

    Google Scholar 

  • J. Trujillo Bueno, N. Shchukina, A. Asensio Ramos, A substantial amount of hidden magnetic energy in the quiet Sun. Nature 430, 326–329 (2004)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • W. Unno, Line formation of a normal Zeeman triplet. Publ. Astron. Soc. Jpn. 8, 108 (1956)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • D. Vrabec, Magnetic fields spectroheliograms from the San Fernando observatory, in Solar Magnetic Fields, ed. by R. Howard. IAU Symposium, vol. 43 (1971), pp. 329–339

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • P. Zeeman, On the influence of magnetism on the nature of the light emitted by a substance. Philos. Mag. 43, 226 (1897)

    MATH  Google Scholar 

  • H. Zirin, The interaction of weak and strong magnetic fields on the Sun (invited), in IAU Colloq. 141: The Magnetic and Velocity Fields of Solar Active Regions, ed. by H. Zirin, G. Ai, H. Wang. Astronomical Society of the Pacific Conference Series, vol. 46 (1993), pp. 215–221

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Institute of Astronomy, ETH Zurich, 8093, Zurich, Switzerland

    J. O. Stenflo

  2. Istituto Ricerche Solari Locarno, Via Patocchi, 6605, Locarno-Monti, Switzerland

    J. O. Stenflo

Authors
  1. J. O. Stenflo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to J. O. Stenflo.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Stenflo, J.O. History of Solar Magnetic Fields Since George Ellery Hale. Space Sci Rev 210, 5–35 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11214-015-0198-z

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11214-015-0198-z

Keywords

Search

Navigation