Skip to main content

Advertisement

Log in

Social Capital in Europe from 1990 to 2012: Trends and Convergence

  • Published:
Social Indicators Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

As social capital affects many social and economic outcomes, it is important to monitor its changes over time. This study uses WVS-EVS integrated data (1990–2012) to describe the trends of 8 proxies of social capital in 30 Western and Eastern European countries. We found positive trends of trust in others, confidence in public services, and in armed forces; negative trends of participation in groups and associations, and of confidence in political institutions; mixed trends of civic cooperation, and of confidence in religious and empowering institutions. We also found evidence that over time the differences in social capital among European countries predominantly increased (\(\sigma\)-convergence). These differences are not explained by differences in the initial stocks of social capital (\(\beta\)-convergence).

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. This index follows the work by Knack and Keefer (1997), and should not be confused with the “index of civicness” developed by Putnam et al. (1993).

  2. Data from the 1980s are not included because they cover exclusively Western countries.

  3. The information on factor loadings is available in Table 5 in the Appendix. To preserve the original scaling of the variables, we created the indexes by computing the mean of the variables loading strongly on particular factors.

References

  • Adam, F. (2008). Mapping social capital across Europe: Findings, trends and methodological shortcomings of cross-national surveys. Social Science Information, 47(2), 159–186.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Adam, F., & Rončević, B. (2003). Social capital: Recent debates and research trends. Social Science Information, 42(2), 155–183.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aguiar, M., & Hurst, E. (2007). Measuring trends in leisure: The allocation of time over five decades. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 122(3), 969–1006.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Allison, P. (2001). Missing data. SAGE University Paper, 136.

  • Antoci, A., Sacco, P. L., & Vanin, P. (2007). Social capital accumulation and the evolution of social participation. The Journal of Socio-Economics, 36(1), 128–143.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arts, W. & Halman, L. (2004). European values at the turn of the millennium. Brill NV, Leiden, the Netherlands.

  • Barro, R. J., & Sala-i Martin, X. (1992). Convergence. Journal of Political Economy, 100, 223–251.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bartkowski, J., & Jasińska-Kania, A. (2004). Voluntary organizations and the development of civil society. In W. A. Arts, & L. Halman, (Eds.), European Values at the Turn of the Millennium, (pp. 109–38). Brill. ska-Kania (2004). ska-Kania (2004). ska-Kania (2004).

  • Bartolini, S., Bilancini, E., & Pugno, M. (2013). Did the decline in social connections depress Americans’ happiness? Social Indicators Research, 110(3), 1033–1059.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bartolini, S., & Sarracino, F. (2014). Happy for how long? How social capital and GDP relate to happiness over time. Ecological Economics, 108, 242–256.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bartolini, S., & Sarracino, F. (2015). The dark side of Chinese growth: Declining social capital and well-being in times of economic boom. World Development, 74, 333–351.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beugelsdijk, S., & Van Schaik, T. (2005a). Differences in social capital between 54 Western European regions. Regional Studies, 39(8), 1053–1064.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beugelsdijk, S., & Van Schaik, T. (2005b). Social capital and growth in European regions: An empirical test. European Journal of Political Economy, 21(2), 301–324.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blanchflower, D. (2008). International evidence on well-being. IZA Discussion Papers, (3354).

  • Costa, D., & Kahn, M. (2003). Understanding the decline in social capital, 1952–1998. Kyklos, 56, 17–46.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Curtis, J. E., Baer, D. E., & Grabb, E. G. (2001). Nations of joiners: Explaining voluntary association membership in democratic societies. American Sociological Review, 66(6), 783–805.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dekker, P., & Broek, A. V. D. (2005). Involvement in voluntary associations in North America and Western Europe: Trends and correlates 1981–2000. Journal of Civil Society, 1(1), 45–59.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Delhey, J., & Newton, K. (2005). Predicting cross-national levels of social trust: Global pattern or Nordic exceptionalism? European Sociological Review, 21(4), 311–327.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ebbinghaus, B. (2002). Trade unions’changing role: Membership erosion, organizational reform, and social partnership in Europe. Industrial Relations Journal, 33(5), 465.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Evans, P., & Karras, G. (1996). Do economies converge? Evidence from a panel of US states. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 78, 384–388.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • EVS (2011). European values study 1981–2008, longitudinal data file. Technical report, GESIS Data Archive, Cologne, ZA4804 Data File Version 2.0.0 (www.europeanvaluesstudy.eu).

  • Ferrer-i Carbonell, A. (2005). Income and well-being: An empirical analysis of the comparison income effect. Journal of Public Economics, 89(5–6), 997–1019.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ferrer-i Carbonell, A., & Frijters, P. (2004). How important is methodology for the estimates of the determinants of happiness? Economic Journal, 114(497), 641–659.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fidrmuc, J., & Gërxhani, K. (2004). Formation of social capital in Eastern Europe: Explaining the gap vis-á-vis developed countries. German Institute for Economic Research. rxhani (2004). rxhani (2004).

  • Fidrmuc, J., & Gërxhani, K. (2008). Mind the gap! Social capital, East and West. Journal of Comparative Economics, 36, 264–286.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hirsch, F. (1976). Social limits to growth. Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Jetten, J., Haslam, C., & Haslam, S. A. (Eds.). (2010). The Social Cure. Identity, Health and Well-Being. New York: Psychology Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Knack, S., & Keefer, P. (1997). Does social capital have an economic payoff? A cross-country investigation. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 112(4), 1251–1288.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Letki, N., & Evans, G. (2005). Endogenizing social trust: Democratization in East-Central Europe. British Journal of Political Science, 35(3), 515–529.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Little, R., & Rubin, D. (2002). Statistical analysis with missing data (2nd ed.). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Michelacci, C., & Zaffaroni, P. (2000). (Fractional) beta convergence. Journal of Monetary Economics, 45(1), 129–153.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mikucka, M., & Sarracino, F. (2014). Making economic growth and well-being compatible: The role of trust and income inequality. Munich Personal RePEc Archive, (59695).

  • Morales, L. (2004). Changing patterns of associational involvement in Europe. Workshop 8—The changing structure of civil society, directed by Derrick Purdue & Mario Diani, ECPR Joint Sessions, Uppsala.

  • Norris, P. (2001). Making democracies work: Social capital and civic engagement in 47 societies. Paper for panel 1–10 ‘social capital and organizations’, Midwest Political Science Association 60th Annual Meeting, Palmer House Hilton, Chicago.

  • Paxton, P. (1999). Is social capital declining in the United States? A multiple indicator assessment. American Journal of Sociology, 105(1), 88–127.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pfaffermayr, M. (2009). Conditional \(\beta\)-and \(\sigma\)-convergence in space: A maximum likelihood approach. Regional Science and Urban Economics, 39(1), 63–78.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pichler, F., & Wallace, C. (2007). Patterns of formal and informal social capital in Europe. European Sociological Review, 23(4), 423–435.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Polanyi, K. (1968). The great transformation. Boston: Beacon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Powdthavee, N. (2010). The happiness equation: The surprising economics of our most valuable asset. London: Icon Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Putnam, R. (2000). Bowling alone: The collapse and revival of American community. Simon and Schuster.

  • Putnam, R., Leonardi, L., & Nanetti, R. (1993). Making democracy work: Civic traditions in modern Italy. New Jersey: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sabatini, F. (2009). Social capital as social networks: A new framework for measurement and an empirical analysis of its determinants and consequences. The Journal of Socio-Economics, 38(3), 429–442.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sala-i Martin, X. X. (1996). Regional cohesion: Evidence and theories of regional growth and convergence. European Economic Review, 40(6), 1325–1352.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sarracino, F. (2010). Social capital and subjective well-being trends: Comparing 11 western European countries. Journal of Socio-Economics, 39(4), 482–517.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sarracino, F. (2012). Money, sociability and happiness: Are developed countries doomed to social erosion and unhappiness? Social Indicators Research, 109(2), 135–188.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schafer, J. (1997). Analysis of incomplete multivariate data. Boca Raton: CRC Press Company.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Schafer, J. (1999). Multiple imputation: A primer. Statistical Methods in Medical Research, 8, 3–15.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sodini, M., Sabatini, F., & Antoci, A. (2014). Online and offline social participation and social poverty traps. Can social networks save human relations? Working paper CRENoS, Centre for North South Economic Research, University of Cagliari and Sassari, Italy.

  • Stolle, D., & Hooghe, M. (2004). Inaccurate, exceptional, one-sided or irrelevant? The debate about the alleged decline of social capital and civic engagement in Western societies. British Journal of Political Science, 35, 149–167.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stromsnes, K., & Wollebæk, D. (2006). Mapping voluntarism—Scandinavia in comparison. In 7th International ISTR Conference, Bangkok, (pp. 9–12).

  • Van Oorschot, W., & Arts, W. (2005). The social capital of European welfare states: The crowding out hypothesis revisited. Journal of European Social Policy, 15(1), 05–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Oorschot, W., Arts, W., & Gelissen, J. (2006). Social capital in Europe, measurement and social and regional distribution of a multifaceted phenomenon. Acta Sociologica, 49(2), 149–167.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Schaik, T. (2002). Social capital in the European Values Study surveys. Country paper prepared for the OECD-ONS International Conference on Social Capital Measurement London.

  • Western, J., Stimson, R., Baum, S., & Van Gellecum, Y. (2005). Measuring community strength and social capital. Regional Studies, 39(8), 1095–1109.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • WVS (2015). World Values Survey 1981-2014 longitudinal aggregate v.20150418. Technical report, World Values Survey Association (www.worldvaluessurvey.org). Aggregate File Producer: JDSystems, Madrid Spain.

  • Young, A. T., Higgins, M. J., & Levy, D. (2008). Sigma convergence versus beta convergence: Evidence from US county-level data. Journal of Money, Credit and Banking, 40(5), 1083–1093.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We gratefully acknowledge the support of LCSR National Research University Higher School of Economics, Russian Federation. The article was prepared within the framework of a subsidy granted to the HSE by the Government of the Russian Federation for the implementation of the Global Competitiveness Program. We thank Stefano Bartolini, Ronald Inglehart, Chris Welzel, Eduard Ponarin, Chris Swader and the colleagues of the Laboratory for Comparative Social Research (Russia), of the GESIS Leibniz Institute for the Social Sciences (Germany) and of STATEC (Luxembourg) for their useful comments and constant support. We also wish to acknowledge the fruitful comments received by three anonymous reviewers. The usual disclaimers apply.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Francesco Sarracino.

Appendix

Appendix

1.1 Factor Loadings

See Table 5.

Table 5 Factor loadings and unique variances (pooled sample)

The factor analysis applied to 11 measures of confidence in institutions identifies four dimensions of confidence in institutions. According to the factor loadings prevalent in each factor (marked in bold face), we built four synthetic indexes of confidence in institutions. The indexes are built as follows:

  • confidence in public services (factor 1): civil services, social security system, health care system, and justice system;

  • confidence in political institutions (factor 2): parliament, government, and political parties;

  • confidence in armed forces and police (factor 3): armed forces, and police;

  • confidence in empowering institutions (factor 4): press, and labour unions.

1.2 Trends by Country

See Tables 6 and 7.

Table 6 Trends (average change per 10 years) of participation in groups and associations, trust in others, and index of civic cooperation
Table 7 List of the trends (coefficients and their significance) of confidence in various institutions by country

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Sarracino, F., Mikucka, M. Social Capital in Europe from 1990 to 2012: Trends and Convergence. Soc Indic Res 131, 407–432 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-016-1255-z

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-016-1255-z

Keywords

JEL Classification

Navigation