Abstract
Although everyday exposure to media content that sexually objectifies women is believed to lead women to sexualize themselves, research testing this connection has produced mixed results. Most studies have focused only on the self-objectification component of self-sexualization, and on limited assessments of media exposure. Our goal was to extend tests of this component of objectification theory both to understudied media genres and to men, and to do so using broader measures of self-sexualization. Surveying 1,107 U.S. undergraduate students (658 women and 449 men), we used structural equation modeling to test the contributions of exposure to popular reality programs, romantic-themed movies, and music videos to self-sexualization (a latent construct comprised of body surveillance, enjoyment of sexualization, and importance of sexual appeal). Frequent consumption of reality TV programs consistently predicted self-sexualization for women and men, and music video exposure predicted self-sexualization only for men. Findings confirm pathways proposed by objectification theory and indicate unique contributions of understudied media.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Allen, J., & Gervais, S. (2012). The drive to be sexy: Prejudice and core motivations in women’s self-sexualization. In D. Russell (Ed.), The psychology of prejudice: Interdisciplinary perspectives on contemporary issues (pp. 77–111). Hauppauge, NY: Nova.
American Psychological Association. (2007). Report of the APA task force on the sexualization of girls. Washington DC: American Psychological Association. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/pi/women/programs/girls/report.aspx.
Aubrey, J. S. (2006a). Effects of sexually objectifying media on self-objectification and body surveillance in undergraduates: Results of a 2-year panel study. Journal of Communication, 56, 366–386. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2006.00024.x.
Aubrey, J. S. (2006b). Exposure to sexually objectifying media and body self-perceptions among college women: An examination of the selective exposure hypothesis and the role of moderating variables. Sex Roles, 55, 159–172. doi:10.1007/s11199-006-9070-7.
Aubrey, J. S. (2007). The impact of sexually objectifying media exposure on negative body emotions and sexual self-perceptions: Investigating the mediating role of body self-consciousness. Mass Communication and Society, 10, 1–23. doi:10.1080/15205430709337002.
Aubrey, J. S., & Frisby, C. M. (2011). Sexual objectification in music videos: A content analysis comparing gender and genre. Mass Communication and Society, 14, 475–501. doi:10.1080/15205436.2010.513468.
Aubrey, J. S., & Taylor, L. (2009). The role of lad magazines in priming men’s chronic and temporary appearance-related schemata: An investigation of longitudinal and experimental findings. Human Communication Research, 35, 28–58. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.2008.01337.x.
Callister, M., Stern, L., Coyne, S., Robinson, T., & Bennion, E. (2011). Evaluation of sexual content in teen-centered films from 1980 to 2007. Mass Communication and Society, 14, 454–474. doi:10.1080/15205436.2010.500446.
Calogero, R. (2013). Objects don’t object: Evidence that self-objectification disrupts women’s social activism. Psychological Science, 24, 312–318. doi:10.1177/0956797612452574.
Coyne, S. M., Padilla-Walker, L. M., & Howard, E. (2013). Emerging in a digital world a decade review of media use, effects, and gratifications in emerging adulthood. Emerging Adulthood, 1, 125–137. doi:10.1177/2167696813479782.
Dakanalis, A., Mattei, V., Bagliacca, E., Prunas, A., Sarno, L., Riva, G., & Zanetti, M. (2012). Disordered eating behaviors among Italian men: Objectifying media and sexual orientation differences. Eating Disorders, 20, 356–367. doi:10.1080/10640266.2012.715514.
Dallesasse, S., & Kluck, A. (2013). Reality television and the muscular male ideal. Body Image, 10, 309–315.doi: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2013.02.004.
Egbert, N., & Belcher, J. D. (2012). Reality bites: An investigation of the genre of reality television and its relationship to viewers’ body image. Mass Communication and Society, 15, 407–431. doi:10.1080/15205436.2011.583545.
Fardouly, J., Diedrichs, P. C., Vartanian, L. R., & Halliwell, E. (2015). The mediating role of appearance comparisons in the relationship between media usage and self-objectification in young women. Psychology of Women Quarterly. Advance online publication. doi:10.1177/0361684315581841.
Ferris, A. L., Smith, S. W., Greenberg, B. S., & Smith, S. L. (2007). The content of reality dating shows and viewer perceptions of dating. Journal of Communication, 57, 490–510. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2007.00354.x.
Flynn, M., Park, S., Morin, D., & Stana, A. (2015). Anything but real: Body idealization and objectification of MTV docusoap characters. Sex Roles, 72, 173–182. doi:10.1007/s11199-015-0464-2.
Fox, J., Ralston, R., Cooper, C., & Jones, K. (2014). Sexualized avatars lead to women’s self-objectification and acceptance of rape myths. Psychology of Women Quarterly. Advance online publication. doi:10.1177/0361684314553578.
Fredrickson, B. L., & Roberts, T. (1997). Objectification theory: Toward understanding women’s lived experiences and mental health risks. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 173–206. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00108.x.
Frisby, C. M., & Aubrey, J. S. (2012). Race and genre in the use of sexual objectification in female artists’ music videos. The Howard Journal of Communications, 23, 66–87. doi:10.1080/10646175.2012.641880.
Gervais, S., Vescio, T., & Allen, J. (2012). When are people interchangeable sexual objects? The effect of gender and body type on sexual fungibility. British Journal of Social Psychology, 51, 499–513. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8309.2010.02016.x.
Gordon, M.K., and Ward, L.M. (2000). I’m beautiful, therefore I’m worthy: Assessing associations between media use and adolescents’ self-worth. Paper presented at the biennial meeting of the Society for Research on Adolescence, Chicago.
Grabe, S., & Hyde, J. S. (2009). Body objectification, MTV, and psychological outcomes among female adolescents. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 39, 2840–2858. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2009.00552.x.
Grabe, S., Ward, L. M., & Hyde, J. S. (2008). The role of the media in body image concerns among women: A meta-analysis of experimental and correlational studies. Psychological Bulletin, 134, 460–476. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.134.3.460.
Hatton, E., & Trautner, M. (2011). Equal opportunity objectification? The sexualization of men and women on the cover of rolling stone. Sexuality and Culture, 15, 256–278. doi:10.1007/s12119-011-9093-2.
Johnson, V., & Gurung, R. (2011). Defusing the objectification of women by other women: The role of competence. Sex Roles, 65, 177–188. doi:10.1007/s11199-011-0006-5.
Kim, J. L., Sorsoli, C. L., Collins, K., Zylbergold, B. A., Schooler, D., & Tolman, D. A. (2007). From sex to sexuality: Exposing the heterosexual script on primetime television network. Journal of Sex Research, 44, 145–157. doi:10.1080/00224490701263660.
Kline, R. B. (2011). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (3rd ed.). New York: Guilford Publications.
Lindberg, S., Hyde, J. S., & McKinley, N. (2006). A measure of objectified body consciousness for preadolescent and adolescent youth. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 30, 65–76. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2006.00263.x.
Liss, M., Erchull, M., & Ramsey, L. (2011). Empowering or oppressing? Development and exploration of the enjoyment of sexualization scale. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37, 55–68. doi:10.1177/0146167210386119.
Little, T. D., Cunningham, W., Shahar, G., & Widaman, K. (2002). To parcel or not to parcel: Exploring the question, weighing the merits. Structural Equation Modeling, 9, 151–173. doi:10.1207/S15328007SEM0902_1.
Lucas, K., & Sherry, J. L. (2004). Sex differences in video game play: A communication-based explanation. Communication Research, 31, 499–523. doi:10.1177/009365024267930.
Mahalik, J., Locke, B., Ludlow, L., Diemer, M., Scott, R., Gottfried, M., & Freitas, G. (2003). Development of the conformity to masculine norms inventory. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 4, 3–25. doi:10.1037/1524-9220.4.1.3.
Martin, K. A., & Kazyak, E. (2009). Hetero-romantic love and heterosexiness in children’s G-rated films. Gender and Society, 23, 315–336. doi:10.1177/0891243209335635.
McKenney, S., & Bigler, R. (2014). Internalized sexualization and its relation to sexualized appearance, body surveillance, and body shame among early adolescent girls. Journal of Early Adolescence. Advance online publication. doi:10.1177/0272431614556889.
McKinley, N., & Hyde, J. S. (1996). The objectified body consciousness scale: Development and validation. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 20, 181–215. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1996.tb00467.x.
Messineo, M. (2008). Does advertising on black entertainment television portray more positive gender representations compared to broadcast networks? Sex Roles, 59, 752–764. doi:10.1007/s11199-008-9470-y.
Montemurro, B. (2003). Not a laughing matter: Sexual harassment as “material” on workplace-based situation comedies. Sex Roles, 48, 433–445. doi:10.1023/A:1023578528629.
Moradi, B., & Huang, Y. (2008). Objectification theory and psychology of women: A decade of advances and future directions. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 32, 377–398. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2008.00452.x.
Morrison, T., & Halton, M. (2009). Buff, tough, and rough: Representations of muscularity in action motion pictures. Journal of Men’s Studies, 17, 57–74. doi:10.3149/jms.1701.57.
Morry, M., & Staska, S. (2001). Magazine exposure: Internalization, self-objectification, eating attitudes, and body satisfaction in male and female university students. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 33, 269–279. doi:10.1037/h0087148.
Motion Picture Association of America [MPAA]. (2014). Theatrical market statistics. Retrieved from http://www.mpaa.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/MPAA-Theatrical-Market-Statistics-2014.pdf.
Noll, S., & Fredrickson, B. (1998). A meditational model linking self-objectification, body shame, and disordered eating. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 22, 623–636. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1998.tb00181.x.
Nowatzki, J., & Morry, M. (2009). Women’s intentions regarding, and acceptance of, self-sexualizing behavior. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 33, 95–107. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2008.01477.x.
Paik, H., & Comstock, G. (1994). The effects of television violence on antisocial behavior: A meta-analysis. Communication Research, 21, 516–546. doi:10.1177/009365094021004004.
Pope, H., Olivarida, R., Borowiecki, J., & Cohane, G. (2001). The growing commercial value of the male body: A longitudinal survey of advertising in women’s magazines. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 70, 189–192. doi:10.1159/000056252.
Rice, L. (2015). Most watched cable programs. Retrieved from http://www.ew.com/article/2012/12/12/this-years-most-watched-cable-shows.
Rohlinger, D. (2002). Eroticizing men: Cultural influences on advertising and male objectification. Sex Roles, 46, 61–74. doi:10.1023/A:1016575909173.
Slater, A., & Tiggemann, M. (2014). Media exposure, extracurricular activities, and appearance-related comments as predictors of female adolescents’ self-objectification. Psychology of Women Quarterly. Advance online publication. doi:10.1177/0361684314554606.
Smith, S. L., Choueiti, M., Prescott, A., Piper, K., and The Annenberg School for Communication and Journalism, USC. (2012). Gender roles and occupations: A look at character attributes and job-related aspirations in film and television. Marina Del Rey, CA: Geena Davis Institute.
Smolak, L., Murnen, S., & Myers, T. (2014). Sexualizing the self: What college women and men think about and do to be “sexy”. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 38, 379–397. doi:10.1177/0361684314524168.
Tiggemann, M., & Slater, A. (2015). The role of self-objectification in the mental health of early adolescent girls: Predictors and consequences. Journal of Pediatric Psychology. Advance online publication. doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jsv021.
Towbin, M., Haddock, S., Zimmerman, T., Lund, L., & Tanner, L. (2003). Images of gender, race, age, and sexual orientation in Disney feature-length animated films. Journal of Feminist Family Therapy, 15(4), 19–44. doi:10.1300/J086v15n04_02.
Vaes, J., Paladino, P., & Puvia, E. (2011). Are sexualized women complete human beings? Why men and women dehumanize sexually objectified women. European Journal of Social Psychology, 41, 774–785. doi:10.1002/ejsp.824.
Vandenbosch, L., & Eggermont, S. (2012). Understanding sexual objectification: A comprehensive approach toward media exposure and girls’ internalization of beauty ideals, self-objectification, and body surveillance. Journal of Communication, 62, 869–887. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2012.01667.x.
Vandenbosch, L., & Eggermont, S. (2013). Sexualization of adolescent boys: Media exposure and boys’ internalization of appearance ideals, self-objectification, and body surveillance. Men and Masculinities, 16, 283–306. doi:10.1177/1097184X13477866.
Vandenbosch, L., & Eggermont, S. (2015). The role of mass media in adolescents’ sexual behaviors: Exploring the explanatory value of the three-step self-objectification process. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 44, 729–742. doi:10.1007/s10508-014-0292-4.
Vandenbosch, L., Vervloessem, D., & Eggermont, S. (2013). “I might get your heart racing in my skin-tight jeans”: Sexualization on music entertainment television. Communication Studies, 64, 178–194. doi:10.1080/10510974.2012.755640.
Vandenbosch, L., Muise, A., Eggermont, S., & Impett, E. (2015). Sexualizing reality television: Associations with trait and state self-objectification. Body Image, 13, 62–66. doi:10.1016/j.bodim.2015.01.003.
Visser, B., Sultani, F., Choma, B., & Pozzebon, J. (2014). Enjoyment of sexualization: Is it different for men? Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 44, 495–504. doi:10.1111/jasp.12241.
Ward, L. M. (1995). Talking about sex: Common themes about sexuality in the prime-time television programs children and adolescents view most. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 24, 595–615. doi:10.1007/bf01537058.
Ward, L. M., & Carlson, C. (2013). Modeling meanness: Associations between reality TV consumption, perceived realism, and adolescents’ social aggression. Media Psychology, 16, 371–389. doi:10.1080/15213269.2013.832627.
Ward, L. M., Rivadeneyra, R., Thomas, K., Day, K., & Epstein, M. (2012). A woman’s worth: Analyzing the sexual objectification of black women in music videos. In E. Zurbriggen & T.-A. Roberts (Eds.), The sexualization of girls and girlhood: Causes, consequences, and resistance (pp. 39–62). New York: Oxford University Press.
Zurbriggen, E., Ramsey, L., & Jaworski, B. (2011). Self- and partner-objectification in romantic relationships: Associations with media consumption and relationship satisfaction. Sex Roles, 64, 449–462. doi:10.1007/S11199-011-9933-4.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Ward, L.M., Seabrook, R.C., Manago, A. et al. Contributions of Diverse Media to Self-Sexualization among Undergraduate Women and Men. Sex Roles 74, 12–23 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-015-0548-z
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-015-0548-z