Abstract
In this paper, I describe the strong and reciprocal relations between the emergence of the specialized expert in the natural sciences and the establishment of science education, in early Modern Greece. Accordingly, I show how science and public education interacted within the Greek state from its inception in the early 1830, to the first decade of the twentieth century, when the University of Athens established an autonomous Mathematics and Physics School. Several factors are taken into account, such as the negotiations of Western educational theories and practices within a local context, the discourses of the science savants of the University of Athens, the role of the influential Greek pedagogues of the era, the state as an agent which imposed restrictions or facilitated certain developments and finally the intellectual and cultural aspirations of the nation itself. Science education is shown to be of fundamental importance for Greek scientists. The inclusion of science within the school system preceded and promoted the appearance of a scientific community and the institution of science courses was instrumental for the emergence of the first trained Greek scientists. Thus, the conventional narrative that would have science appearing in the classrooms as an aftermath of the emergence of a scientific community is problematized.
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Notes
For a discussion of the Polytechnic School’s history as a training and scientific institution in nineteenth century Greece, see Mpiris (1957) and Antoniou (2006), pp. 91–121. It started as a general vocational school, but it grew to a mid-level technical school by 1863 and later on was considered part of tertiary education.
The stratification was very specifically implemented by the topology of the available institutions. In order to be accepted to the University, one needed a Gymanisum decree. Gymnasia, however, where found only in the regional capitals, thus making them accessible only a specific group of people. For a more general analysis, see Kyprianos (2004, pp. 118–133) and Lappas (2004, pp. 305–359).
All mentioned Royal and Ministerial Decrees, as well as a general statistical analysis, can be found in the first volume of Antoniou (1989). For the rest of the paper, all decrees will be references according to their date and/or original administrative number.
For a discussion on the Neohellenic Enlightenment mentality in Kapodistrias’s years, see Kitromilides (1994), pp. 472–485.
There were several reports of curricular reform for the Central School which included science in the courses [see for example the 1.8.1830 report of the Central School Reform Commission, to be found in the Gennadios Library (MSS200)], but none survived the death of Kapodistrias.
The monitorial system, in its Greek iteration, was introduced to enable few teachers to teach large number of students with minimal equipment. After its implementation, it reciprocally defined a large part of the Greek educational discourse. For a discussion on Greek monitorial schools and their persistence, see Papadaki (1992) and Kyprianos (2004), pp. 135–181.
Examples are the Decrees 1088/28-2-1857 and 1659/30-8-1874, were professors are asked to commence lessons in Physics or where it is openly stated that the relevant parts of the curriculum have been neglected since 1837. In contrast, one of the questions posed by the Ministry to the Gymnasia principals in the 1836/1-7-1862 Decree concerns the exclusive teaching of Physics in the Gymnasia, in the expense of Chemistry and Natural History. Finally, the Decree 4168/31-8-1855 which presents the program for the year includes in its comments the realization that the Natural History course has not yet been taught in Hellenic Schools, blaming the lack of suitable collections and textbooks.
These curricula were established by the Ministerial Decrees 4168/31-8-1855, 5886/15-9-1857 and 7071/2-9-1867 respectively.
For an analysis of the general educational philosophy of the era, see Kyprianos (2004), pp. 85–118.
A case in point is the 1855 curriculum. When discussing third grade Gymnasium Physics, it has the following to say: “Teach the first five chapters of the textbook” (Royal Decree of 31-8-1885). This was in stark contrast with other courses such as Ancient Greek, Religion, Gymnastics, even Mathematics, which had detailed course curricula in secondary education as far back as 1855.
Cases in point are the Ministerial Decrees 4406/17-7-1857, 7972/25-9-1868 and 8808/27-7-1884.
Since the focus of the paper is not the general history of Greek education, several aspects of the educational developments and their connection with the social and intellectual milieu of the Greek landscape have not been mentioned. This is a field, however, where several important treatises already exist. Besides Kyprianos (2004), there is also the magisterial Tsoukalas (2006).
For an analysis of Greek science textbooks in this period, see Tampakis and Skordoulis (2010).
For example, the physics textbook written for the Gymnasia by Professor of Mathematics and Physics in the University of Athens Vassileios Lakonas (1830–1900), which was on the approved list, underwent at least five editions (1861, 1863, 1869, 1873 and 1874). The same thing happened with the various books of physics by Anastasios Damaskinos, also approved in the years from 1871 to 1879. Finally, the professor of Natural History Spiridon Miliarakis (1852–1919) almost monopolized the market for natural history and botany textbooks from 1878 to 1900.
Taken from the preface of Kondylis (1892). The translation is mine.
As far as scientific activity goes, there were also the Polytechnic School and the Observatory of Athens. However, the first acquired its prestige much later than the University of Athens (see Antoniou 2006, pp. 108–125), while the second did not have any educational role (Nicolaidis 2008). Furthermore, until the late nineteenth century, these three institutions employed more or less the same people to teach science courses.
Complete biographies can be found in Stefanidis (1952).
See for instance Stroumpos (1856).
As was the case, for example, with Prof. K. Mitsopoulos’ textbook on Geography in 1894 and with Sp. Papanikolaou’s textbook on Physics in 1906. The tone of these debates can be seen in Vafas (1895).
The National Observatory was founded in 1842 but never interacted strongly with the University, despite being in name under its aegis. The Botanical Garden of Athens was also founded in the same year (1842), and professor of Botany Theodoros Orfanidis (1817–1886) used it as a research space, while a Museum of Natural History was organized by Hercules Mitsopoulos in the early 1850s. Professor of Physics Dimitrios Stroumpos used experimental apparatus in his teaching from the 1850s onwards, while his successor, Timoleon Argyropoulos (1847–1912) conducted experiments in electromagnetism in the late 1880s. Finally, Anastasios Christomanos, a student of Bunsen and Von Liebig, organized a teaching and research laboratory in Athens as early as 1866. For details see Pantazidis (1889) and Stefanidis (1948) and (1952).
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Tampakis, K. Science Education and the Emergence of the Specialized Scientist in Nineteenth Century Greece. Sci & Educ 22, 789–805 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11191-012-9538-5
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11191-012-9538-5