Abstract
This study investigates the interactive effect of female entrepreneurs’ experience of work–life imbalance and gender-egalitarian macro-level conditions on their job satisfaction, with the prediction that the negative linear relationship between work–life imbalance and job satisfaction may be buffered by the presence of women-friendly action resources, emancipative values, and civic entitlements. Data pertaining to 7392 female entrepreneurs from 44 countries offer empirical support for these predictions. Female entrepreneurs who are preoccupied with their ability to fulfill both work and life responsibilities are more likely to maintain a certain level of job satisfaction, even if they experience significant work–life imbalances, to the extent that they operate in supportive macro-level environments.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
The average variance inflation factor of Model 2 (excluding the squared age term) is 1.84, which is below the conservative threshold of 5, so there is no notable indication of multicollinearity.
Consistent with COR theory (Hobfoll 1989, 2001), our theoretical focus is on the negative linear relationship between work–life imbalance and job satisfaction, and then how this linear relationship might be mitigated by women-friendly macro-conditions. In a post hoc analysis, we also estimate a potential curvilinear direct relationship between work–life imbalance and job satisfaction, to test for shifting marginal effects. We find no such effects.
A follow-up analysis indicated that the difference in the mean values of job satisfaction at high versus low levels of emancipative values was not significant across the lower range of work–life imbalance values but became significant at high levels. The significant p values in Table 4 provide support for the hypothesized moderating effects, but these effects are weaker in the case of emancipative values.
To investigate the role of education specifically, in another post hoc analysis, we assessed the extent to which the interplay of female entrepreneurs’ work–life imbalance and the three macro-level factors in predicting job satisfaction depended on education levels. We thus added corresponding three-way terms (work–life imbalance × action resources × education, work–life imbalance × emancipative values × education, and work–life imbalance × civil entitlements × education) to Models 3–5, respectively. The findings indicated positive, significant three-way interactions for the first two macro-conditions. Highly educated female entrepreneurs thus appear better able to leverage women-friendly action resources and emancipative values to mitigate the hardships of work–life imbalances.
The detailed results are available on request.
In light of this caveat, we conducted two robustness tests to check for endogeneity. First, work–life imbalance and other individual-level variables might correlate with the random intercept, which represents the effects of omitted level 2 covariates. When we include the country-level means of all individual-level covariates, the estimated coefficients for the covariates, which vary at the individual level but are not susceptible to cluster-level confounding, are directly comparable with those reported in Table 4. Second, endogeneity could be caused by reverse causality, so we also ran the regressions in the opposite direction. Job satisfaction and work–life imbalance are still positively related, but we do not find any significant interaction effects. This outcome supports our basic premise that women-supportive environmental conditions help female entrepreneurs overcome the energy resource depletion that they experience in the presence of work–life imbalances (not that environmental conditions influence the impact of job satisfaction on work–life imbalance). The results of these two robustness checks are available upon request.
References
Abbas, M., Raja, U., Darr, W., & Bouckenooghe, D. (2014). Combined effects of perceived politics and psychological capital on job satisfaction, turnover intentions, and performance. Journal of Management, 40, 1813–1830. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206312455243.
Acs, Z. J., Autio, E., & Szerb, L. (2014). National systems of entrepreneurship: Measurement issues and policy implications. Research Policy, 43, 476–494. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2008160.
Agarwal, S., & Lenka, U. (2015). Study on work-life balance of women entrepreneurs – review and research agenda. Industrial and Commercial Training, 47, 356–362. https://doi.org/10.1108/ICT-01-2015-0006.
Agho, A. O., Price, J. L., & Mueller, C. W. (1992). Discriminant validity of measures of job satisfaction, positive affectivity, and negative affectivity. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 65, 185–196. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8325.1992.tb00496.x.
Ahl, H. (2004). The scientific reproduction of gender inequality: A discourse analysis of research texts on women’s entrepreneurship. Malmö: Liber.
Ahl, H. (2006). Why research on women entrepreneurs needs new directions. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 30, 595–621. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2006.00138.x.
Alexander, A. C., & Welzel, C. (2010). Empowering women: the role of emancipative beliefs. European Sociological Review, 27, 364–384. https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/jcq012.
Alexander, A. C., & Welzel, C. (2011). Islam and patriarchy: how robust is Muslim support for patriarchal values? International Review of Sociology, 21, 249–276. https://doi.org/10.1080/03906701.2011.581801.
Anand, S., Vidyarthi, P., Singh, S., & Ryu, S. (2015). Family interference and employee dissatisfaction: Do agreeable employees better cope with stress? Human Relations, 68, 691–708. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726714539714.
Annink, A., Den Dulk, L., & Amorós, J. E. (2016). Different strokes for different folks? The impact of heterogeneity in work characteristics and country contexts on work-life balance among the self-employed. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, 22, 880–902. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEBR-04-2016-0127.
Aspinwall, L. G., & Taylor, S. E. (1997). A stitch in time: Self-regulation and proactive coping. Psychological Bulletin, 121, 417–436. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.121.3.417.
Audretsch, D. B., & Belitski, M. (2017). Entrepreneurial ecosystems in cities: establishing the framework conditions. Journal of Technology Transfer, 42, 1030–1051. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10961-016-9473-8.
Audretsch, D. B., Belitski, M., & Desai, S. (2018). National business regulations and city entrepreneurship in Europe: A multilevel nested analysis. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice. https://doi.org/10.1177/1042258718774916.
Balachandra, L., Briggs, T., Eddleston, K., & Brush, C. (2019). Don’t pitch like a girl!: How gender stereotypes influence investor decisions. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 43, 116–137. https://doi.org/10.1177/1042258717728028.
Beham, B. (2011). Work-family conflict and organizational citizenship behaviour: Empirical evidence from Spanish employees. Community, Work & Family, 14, 63–80. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311908.2017.1290402.
Beutell, N. J. (2007). Self-employment, work-family conflict and work-family synergy: Antecedents and consequences. Journal of Small Business and Entrepreneurship, 20, 325–334. https://doi.org/10.1080/08276331.2007.10593403.
Bird, M., & Wennberg, K. (2014). Regional influences on the prevalence of family versus non-family start-ups. Journal of Business Venturing, 29, 421–436. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2013.06.004.
Brieger, S. A., Terjesen, S. A., Hechavarría, D. M., & Welzel, C. (2018). Prosociality in business: A human empowerment framework. Journal of Business Ethics, Online first. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-018-4045-5
Brieger, S. A., Francoeur, C., Welzel, C., & Ben-Amar, W. (2019). Empowering women: The role of emancipative forces in board gender diversity. Journal of Business Ethics, 155, 49–511. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-017-3489-3.
Brush, C. G., de Bruin, A., & Welter, F. (2009). A gender-aware framework for women's entrepreneurship. International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 1, 8–24. https://doi.org/10.1108/17566260910942318.
Brush, C., Edelman, L. F., Manolova, T., & Welter, F. (2019). A gendered look at entrepreneurship ecosystems. Small Business Economics, 53, 393–408. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-018-9992-9.
Bullough, A., Renko, M., & Abdelzaher, D. (2017). Women’s business ownership: Operating within the context of institutional and in-group collectivism. Journal of Management, 43, 2037–2064. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206314561302.
Bunk, J. A., Dugan, A. G., D’Agostino, A. L., & Barnes-Farrell, J. L. (2012). Understanding work-to-family conflict among self-employed workers: Utilising a cognitive appraisal framework. Journal of Entrepreneurship, 21, 223–251. https://doi.org/10.1177/0971355712449790.
Cabrera, E. F., & Cabrera, A. (2005). Fostering knowledge sharing through people management practices. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 16, 720–735. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585190500083020.
Carter, N. M., & Williams, M. L. (2003). Comparing social feminism and liberal feminism: The case of new firm growth. In J. E. Butler (Ed.), New perspectives on women entrepreneurs (pp. 25–50). Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing.
Chay, Y. W. (1993). Social support, individual differences and well-being: A study of small business entrepreneurs and employees. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 66, 285–302. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8325.1993.tb00540.x.
Cho, S. (2013). Integrating equality: Globalization, women’s rights, and human trafficking. International Studies Quarterly, 57, 683–697. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2099326.
Choi, D. Y., & Stack, M. (2005). Who adds value to ventures? Understanding the roles and relative contributions of key advisors in high-technology startups. Journal of Entrepreneurial Finance & Business Ventures, 10, 75–87.
Clark Muntean, S. (2013). Wind beneath my wings: policies promoting high-growth oriented women entrepreneurs. International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 5, 36–59. https://doi.org/10.1108/17566261311305201.
Cloninger, P. A., Selvarajan, T. T., Singh, B., & Huang, S. (2015). The mediating influence of work-family conflict and the moderating influence of gender on employee outcomes. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 26, 2269–2287. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2015.1004101.
Collins-Dodd, C., Gordon, I., & Smart, C. (2004). Further evidence on the role of gender in financial performance. Journal of Small Business Management, 42, 395–417. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-627X.2004.00119.x.
De Clercq, D., & Belausteguigoitia, I. (2017). Overcoming the dark side of task conflict: Buffering roles of transformational leadership, tenacity, and passion for work. European Management Journal, 35, 78–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.emj.2016.06.008.
De Clercq, D., Lim, D. S., & Oh, C. H. (2013). Individual-level resources and new business activity: The contingent role of institutional context. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 37, 303–330. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2011.00470.x.
Eddleston, K. A., & Powell, G. N. (2012). Nurturing entrepreneurs’ work-family balance: A gendered perspective. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 36, 513–541. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2012.00506.x.
Edelman, L. F., Brush, C. G., & Manolova, T. (2005). Co-alignment in the resource-performance relationship: Strategy as mediator. Journal of Business Venturing, 20, 359–383. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2004.01.004.
Elam, A., & Terjesen, S. (2010). Gendered institutions and cross-national patterns of business creation for men and women. European Journal of Development Research, 22, 331–348. https://doi.org/10.1057/ejdr.2010.19.
Emrich, C. G., Denmark, F. L., & Den Hartog, D. N. (2004). Cross-cultural differences in gender egalitarianism: Implications for societies, organizations, and leaders. In R. J. House, P. J. Hanges, M. Javidan, P. W. Dorfman, & V. Gupta (Eds.), Culture, leadership, and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies (pp. 343–394). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Ezzedeen, S. R., & Zikic, J. (2017). Finding balance amid boundarylessness: An interpretive study of entrepreneurial work–life balance and boundary management. Journal of Family Issues, 38, 1546–1576. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X15600731.
Forson, C. (2013). Contextualising migrant black business women’s work-life balance experiences. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour & Research, 19, 460–477. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEBR-09-2011-0126.
Gilbert, L.A., Kovalic, H.C, & Manning, L. (1981). Coping with conflict between professional and maternal roles. Family Relations 30, 419–426. doi:https://doi.org/10.2307/584037
Goltz, S., Buche, M. W., & Pathak, S. (2015). Political empowerment, rule of law, and women's entry into entrepreneurship. Journal of Small Business Management, 53, 605–626. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsbm.12177.
Greenhaus, J. H., & Allen, T. D. (2011). Work-family balance: A review and extension of the literature. In J. C. Quick & L. E. Tetrick (Eds.), Handbook of occupational health psychology (2nd ed., pp. 165–183). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Greenhaus, J. H., & Parasuraman, S. (1999). Research on work, family, and gender: current status and future directions. In G. N. Powell (Ed.), Handbook of gender and work (pp. 391–412) (pp. 391–412). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Guest, D. E. (2002). Perspectives on the study of work–life balance. Social Science Information, 41, 255–279. https://doi.org/10.1177/0539018402041002005.
Haar, J. M. (2013). Testing a new measure of WLB: A study of parent and non-parent employees from New Zealand. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 24, 3305–3324. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2013.775175.
Haar, J. M., Russo, M., Suñe, A., & Ollier-Malaterre, A. (2014). Outcomes of work–life balance on job satisfaction, life satisfaction and mental health: A study across seven cultures. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 85, 361–373. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2014.08.010.
Hechavarría, D. M., Terjesen, S. A., Ingram, A. E., Renko, M., Justo, R., & Elam, A. (2017). Taking care of business: the impact of culture and gender on entrepreneurs' blended value creation goals. Small Business Economics, 48, 225–257. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-016-9747-4.
Hessels, J., Arampatzi, E., van der Zwan, P., & Burger, M. (2018). Life satisfaction and self-employment in different types of occupations. Applied Economics Letters, 25(1–7), 734–740.
Hobfoll, S. E. (1989). Conservation of resources. A new attempt at conceptualizing stress. American Psychologist, 44, 513–524. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504851.2017.1361003.
Hobfoll, S. E. (2001). The influence of culture, community, and the nested-self in the stress process: Advancing conservation of resource theory. Applied Psychology. An International Review, 50, 337–369. https://doi.org/10.1111/1464-0597.00062.
Hobfoll, S. E., & Shirom, A. (2000). Conservation of resources theory: Applications to stress and management in the workplace. In R. T. Golembiewski (Ed.), Handbook of organization behavior (2nd ed., pp. 57–81). New York: Dekker.
Hox, J. J., Moerbeek, M., & van de Schoot, R. (2010). Multilevel analysis: Techniques and applications. New York: Routledge.
Hsu, D., Wiklund, J., Anderson, S., & Coffey, B. (2016). Entrepreneurial exit intentions and the business-family interface. Journal of Business Venturing, 31, 613–627. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2016.08.001.
Hundley, G. (2001). Why women earn less than men in self-employment. Journal of Labor Research, 22, 817–829. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12122-001-1054-3.
Inglehart, R. F. (2008). Changing values among western publics from 1970 to 2006. West European Politics, 31, 130–146. https://doi.org/10.1080/01402380701834747.
Inglehart, R., & Norris, P. (2003). Rising tide: Gender equality and cultural change around the world. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Inglehart, R., & Welzel, C. (2005). Modernization, cultural change, and democracy: The human development sequence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Jennings, J. E., & McDougald, M. S. (2007). Work-family interface experiences and coping strategies: Implications for entrepreneurship research and practice. Academy of Management Review, 32, 747–760. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2007.25275510.
Kabeer, N. (2005). Gender equality and women’s empowerment: A critical analysis of the third millennium development goal. Gender and Development, 13, 13–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/13552070512331332273.
Kirkwood, J., & Tootell, B. (2008). Is entrepreneurship the answer to achieving work-family balance? Journal of Management & Organization, 14, 285–302. https://doi.org/10.5172/jmo.837.14.3.285.
Klasen, S., & Schüler, D. (2011). Reforming the gender-related development index and the gender empowerment measure: Implementing some specific proposals. Feminist Economics, 17, 1–30. https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2010.541860.
Kossek, E. E., & Lambert, S. J. (2004). Work-family scholarship: Voice and context. In E. E. Kossek & S. Lambert (Eds.), Work and Life Integration in Organizations: New Directions for Theory and Practice (pp. 3–18). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Kossek, E. E., Baltes, B. B., & Matthews, R. A. (2011). How work-family research can finally have an impact in the workplace. Industrial and Organizational Psychology: Perspectives on Science and Practice, 4, 352–369. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1754-9434.2011.01353.x.
Lange, T. (2012). Job satisfaction and self-employment: autonomy or personality? Small Business Economics, 38(2), 165–177. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-009-9249-8.
Langowitz, N., & Minniti, M. (2007). The entrepreneurial propensity of women. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 31(3), 341–364. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2007.00177.x.
Lewis, J., & Campbell, M. (2008). What’s in a name? “Work and family” or “work and life” balance policies in the UK since 1997 and the implications for the pursuit of gender equality. Social Policy and Administration, 42, 524–541. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9515.2008.00615.x.
Lippa, R. A. (2005). Gender, nature, and nurture (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Little, L. M., Nelson, D. L., Quade, M. J., & Ward, A. (2011). Stressful demands or helpful guidance? The role of display rules in Indian call centers. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 79, 724–733. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2011.03.017.
Longstreth, M., Stafford, K., & Mauldin, T. (1987). Self-employed women and their families: Time use and socioeconomic characteristics. Journal of Small Business Management, 25, 30–37.
Loscocco, K. A. (1997). Work-family linkages among self-employed women and men. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 50, 204–226. https://doi.org/10.1006/jvbe.1996.1576.
Lyness, K. S., & Judiesch, M. K. (2014). Gender egalitarianism and work–life balance for managers: Multisource perspectives in 36 countries. Applied Psychology, 63, 96–129. https://doi.org/10.1111/apps.12011.
Marlow, S., & Strange, A. (1994). Female entrepreneurs—success by whose standards? In M. Tanton (Ed.), Women in management: A developing presence. London: Routledge.
Michael, G., Anastasios, S., Helen, K., Catherine, K., & Christine, K. (2009). Gender differences in experiencing occupational stress: the role of age, education and marital status. Stress and Health, 25, 397–404. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.1248.
Mihelic, K. K. (2014). Commitment to life roles and work-family conflict among managers in a post-socialist country. Career Development Journal, 19, 204–221. https://doi.org/10.1108/CDI-11-2012-0116.
Mikucka, M. (2014). Does individualistic culture lower the well-being of the unemployed? Evidence from Europe. Journal of Happiness Studies, 15, 673–691. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-013-9445-8.
Millán, J. M., Hessels, J., Thurik, R., & Aguado, R. (2013). Determinants of job satisfaction: A European comparison of self-employed and paid employees. Small Business Economics, 40, 651–670. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-011-9380-1.
Mirchandani, K. (1999). Feminist insight on gendered work: New directions in research on women and entrepreneurship. Gender, Work and Organization, 6, 224–235. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0432.00085.
Nguyen, H., & Sawang, S. (2016). Juggling or struggling? Work and family interface and its buffers among small business owners. Entrepreneurship Research Journal, 6, 207–246. https://doi.org/10.1515/erj-2014-0041.
Nohe, C., Michel, A., & Sonntag, K. (2014). Family-work conflict and job performance: A diary study of boundary conditions and mechanisms. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 35, 339–357. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.1878.
Ollier-Malaterre, A., Valcour, M., den Dulk, L., & Kossek, E. E. (2013). Theorizing national context to develop comparative work–life research: Building bricks and research agenda. European Management Journal, 31, 433–447. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.emj.2013.05.002.
Orser, B. J., Riding, A. L., & Manley, K. (2006). Women entrepreneurs and financial capital. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 30, 643–665. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2006.00140.x.
Parasuraman, S., & Simmers, C. A. (2001). Type of employment, work-family conflict and well-being. A comparative study. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 22, 551–568. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.102.
Parasuraman, S., Purohit, Y. S., Godshalk, V. M., & Beutell, N. J. (1996). Work and family variables, entrepreneurial career success and psychological well-being. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 48, 275–300. https://doi.org/10.1006/jvbe.1996.0025.
Parker, D. F., & DeCotiis, T. A. (1983). Organizational determinants of job stress. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 32, 160–177. https://doi.org/10.1016/0030-5073(83)90145-9.
Pathak, S., & Muralidharan, E. (2016). Informal institutions and their comparative influences on social and commercial entrepreneurship: The role of in-group collectivism and interpersonal trust. Journal of Small Business Management, 54, 168–188. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsbm.12289.
Poelmans, S. A. Y. (2005). Work and family. An international research perspective. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Powell, G. N. (2011). Women and men in management (4th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Sage.
Prottas, D. J., & Thompson, C. A. (2006). Stress, satisfaction, and the work-family interface: a comparison of self-employed business owners, independents, and organizational employees. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 11, 366–378. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.11.4.366.
Rayton, B. A., & Yalabik, Z. Y. (2014). Work engagement, psychological contract breach and job satisfaction. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 25, 2382–2400. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2013.876440.
Rey-Martí, A., Porcar, A. T., & Mas-Tur, A. (2015). Linking female entrepreneurs’ motivation to business survival. Journal of Business Research, 68, 810–814. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2014.11.033.
Schott, T. (2016). Entrepreneurs’ satisfaction with job and life in the sub-Sahara African diaspora: Dual embeddedness in home-society and host-society. FUTA Journal of Management and Technology, 1, 76–83. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-91095-6_13.
Sequeira, J. M., Gibbs, S. R., & Juma, N. A. (2016). Factors contributing to women’s venture success in developing countries: An exploratory analysis. Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship, 21, 1–31. https://doi.org/10.1142/S1084946716500011.
Shelton, L. M. (2006). Female entrepreneurs, work-family conflict, and venture performance: New insights into the work-family interface. Journal of Small Business Management, 44, 285–297. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-627X.2006.00168.x.
Shepherd, D. A. (2011). Multilevel entrepreneurship research: Opportunities for studying entrepreneurial decision making. Journal of Management, 37, 412–420. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206310369940.
Snijders, T. A. B., & Bosker, R. J. (2012). Multilevel analysis: An introduction to basic and advanced multilevel modeling (2nd ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Sage.
Srivastava, A., Locke, E. A., & Bartol, K. M. (2001). Money and subjective well-being: It’s not the money, it’s the motives. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 959–971. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.80.6.959.
Sternberg, R., & Wennekers, S. (2005). Determinants and effects of new business creation using Global Entrepreneurship Monitor data. Small Business Economics, 24, 193–203. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-005-1974-z.
Sun, L.-Y., & Pan, W. (2008). HR practices perceptions, emotional exhaustion, and work outcomes: A conservation-of-resources theory in the Chinese context. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 19, 55–74. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrdq.1225.
Sundström, A., Paxton, P., Wang, Y. T., & Lindberg, S. I. (2017). Women’s political empowerment: A new global index, 1900–2012. World Development, 94, 321–335. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2017.01.016.
Terjesen, S., Hessels, J., & Li, D. (2016). Comparative international entrepreneurship: A review and research agenda. Journal of Management, 42, 299–344. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206313486259.
Thebaud, S. (2015). Business as plan B: Institutional foundations of gender inequality in entrepreneurship across 24 industrialized countries. Administrative Science Quarterly, 60, 671–711. https://doi.org/10.1177/0001839215591627.
Thomas, L.T., & Ganster, D.C (1995). Impact of family-supportive work variables on work-family conflict and strain: a control perspective. Journal of Applied Psychology, 80, 6–15. doi:https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.80.1.6
Ufuk, H., & Ozlen, O. (2001). Interaction between the business and family lives of women entrepreneurs in Turkey. Journal of Business Ethics, 31, 95–106. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1010712023858.
United Nations (2018). Turning promises into action: Gender equality in the 2030 agenda for sustainable development. Available at: www.unwomen.org/en/digital-library/sdg-report
United Nations Development Programme (2016). Human development report 2016: Human Development for Everyone. Technical notes.
Wayne, S. J., Lemmon, G., Hoobler, J. M., Cheung, G. W., & Wilson, M. S. (2017). The ripple effect: A spillover model of the detrimental impact of work-family conflict on job success. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 38, 876–894. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2174.
Welsh, D. H. B., Kaciak, E., Memili, E., & Zhou, Q. (2017). Work-family balance and marketing capabilities as determinants of Chinese women entrepreneurs’ firm performance. Journal of Global Marketing, 30, 174–191. https://doi.org/10.1080/08911762.2017.1317894.
Welzel, C. (2013). Freedom rising: Human empowerment and the quest for emancipation. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Witt, L. A., & Carlson, D. S. (2006). The work-family interface and job performance: Moderating effects of conscientiousness and perceived organizational support. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 11, 343–357. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.11.4.343.
Wood, W., & Eagly, A. H. (2010). Gender. In S. T. Fiske, D. T. Gilbert, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (Vol. 1, 5th ed., pp. 629–667). New York: Oxford University Press.
World Bank. (2015). Women, business and the law 2016: Getting to equal. Washington, DC: World Bank.
Wyndow, P., Li, J., & Mattes, E. (2013). Female empowerment as a core driver of democratic development: A dynamic panel model from 1980 to 2005. World Development, 52, 34–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2013.06.004.
Wyrwich, M., Stuetzer, M., & Sternberg, R. (2016). Entrepreneurial role models, fear of failure, and institutional approval of entrepreneurship: a tale of two regions. Small Business Economics, 46, 467–492. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-015-9695-4.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Appendix
Appendix
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
De Clercq, D., Brieger, S.A. & Welzel, C. Leveraging the macro-level environment to balance work and life: an analysis of female entrepreneurs’ job satisfaction. Small Bus Econ 56, 1361–1384 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-019-00287-x
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-019-00287-x