Abstract
Sub-nm titanium dioxide (TiO2) clusters are synthesized via the hydrolysis of TiCl4 in order to produce clean and surfactant-free oxide surfaces. By controlling the synthesis, stable TiO2 nanoclusters with well-defined size distributions are obtained. The prepared clusters are characterized using transmission electron microscopy (TEM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and Raman spectroscopy in order to gain information about the size and morphology of the material. Photoresponsive methylene blue dye monitoring and hydrogen production under UV irradiation are described in detail and performed. The rate order of photodegradation and hydrogen photoproduction under UV light irradiation of the samples is increased by decreasing the size of TiO2 nanoparticles from 47 nm to 3 nm. The hydrogen evolution rate of TiO2 nanoclusters with size lower than 5 nm is about 3.03 times and 1.96 times faster than that of 47 nm of TiO2 and 12 nm of TiO2, respectively. The enhanced photocatalytic performance suggests that the ternary TiO2 nanoclusters can serve as a highly efficient catalyst for photodegradation of organic pollutants in aquatic environments and hydrogen production from water splitting.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
M. Tomkiiewicz, Catal. Today 58, 115 (2000)
S. Tsuneyasu, K. Ichihara, K. Nakamura, N. Kobayashi, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 18, 16317–16324 (2016)
Y.J. Yuan, Z.J. Ye, H.W. Lu, B. Hu, Y.H. Li, D.Q. Chen, J.-S. Zhong, Z.T. Yu, Z.G. Zou, ACS Catal. 6(2), 532–541 (2016)
Y. Yuan, H. Lu, Z. Ji, J. Zhong, M. Ding, D. Chen, Y. Li, W. Tu, D. Cao, Z. Yu, Z. Zou, Chem. Eng. J. 275, 8–16 (2015)
G.K. Mor, M.A. Carvalho, O.K. Varghese, M.V. Pishko, C.A. Grimes, J. Mater. Res. 19, 628–634 (2004)
C. Garzella, E. Comini, E. Tempesti, C. Frigeri, G. Sberveglieri, Sens. Actuators, B 68, 189–196 (2000)
V. Subramanian, E.E. Wolf, P.V. Kamat, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 126, 4943–4950 (2004)
C.M. Wang, A. Heller, H. Gerischer, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 114, 5230–5234 (1992)
K. Vinodgopal, U. Stafford, K.A. Gray, P.V. Kamat, J. Phys. Chem. 98, 6797–6803 (1994)
K. Vinodgopal, S. Hotchandani, P.V. Kamat, J. Phys. Chem. 97, 9040–9044 (1993)
Y.Z. Zhu, Y.L. Cao, J. Ding, Z.H. Li, J.S. Liu, Y.B. Chi, Appl. Phys. A Mater. Sci. Process. 94, 731–734 (2009)
Y. Zhu, Y. Cao, Z. Li, J. Ding, J. Liu, Y. Chi, J. Colloid Interface Sci. 306(1), 133–136 (2007)
D.C. Pan, N.N. Zhao, Q. Wang, S.C. Jiang, X.L. Ji, L.J. An, Adv. Mater. 17, 1991–1995 (2005)
Q.Q. Qiao, J.T. Mcleskey, Appl. Phys. 86, 153501–153505 (2005)
U. Bach, D. Lupo, P. Comte, J.E. Moser, F. Weissortel, J. Salbeck, H. Spreitzer, M. Gratzel, Nature 395, 583–585 (1998)
B. Oregan, M. Gratzel, Nature 353, 737–740 (1991)
G.E. Morris, W.A. Skinner, P.G. Self, R.S. Smart, Colloid Surf. A 155, 27–41 (1999)
J.H. Braun, A. Baidins, R.E. Marganski, Prog. Org. Coat. 20, 105–138 (1992)
G. Ramakrishna, H.N. Ghosh, Langmuir 19, 505 (2003)
E. Pelizzetti, C. Minero, Elecrochim. Acta 38, 47–55 (1993)
S. Tada-Oikawa, G. Ichihara, H. Fukatsu, Y. Shimanuki, N. Tanaka, E. Watanabe, Y. Suzuki, M. Murakami, K. Izuoka, J. Chang, W. Wu, Y. Yamada, S. Ichihara, Int. J. Mol. Sci. 17, 576 (2016)
S. Sahni, S.B. Reddy, B.S. Murty, Mater. Sci. Eng. A 758, 452–453 (2007)
B. Li, X. Wang, M. Yan, L. Li, Mater. Chem. Phys. 78, 184–188 (2002)
Y.V. Kolenko, B.R. Churagulov, M. Kunst, L. Mazerolles, C. Colbeau-justin, Appl. Catal. B Environ. 54, 51–58 (2004)
W. Zhou, Q. Cao, S. Tang, Powder Technol. 168, 32–36 (2006)
S.Y. Baek, S.Y. Chai, K.S. Hur, W.I. Lee, Bull. Korean Chem. Soc. 26, 1333–1334 (2005)
J.W. Seo, H. Chung, M.Y. Kim, J. Lee, I.H. Choi, J. Cheon, Small 3, 850–853 (2007)
X. Chen, S.S. Mao, Chem. Rev. 107, 2891–2959 (2007)
D.P. Macwan, P.N. Dave, S. Chaturvedi, J. Mater. Sci. 46, 3669–3686 (2011)
T.C. Long, J. Tajuba, P. Sama, N. Saleh, C. Swartz, J. Parker, S. Hester, G.V. Lowry, B. Veronesi, Environ. Health Perspect. 115, 1631–1637 (2007)
I.S. Bouhaik, P. Leroy, P. Ollivier, M. Azaroual, L. Mercury, J. Colloid Interface Sci. 406, 75–85 (2013)
K. Liu, X. Lin, J. Zhao, Int. J. Nanomed. 8, 2509–2520 (2013)
J. Yu, Y. Su, B. Cheng, M. Zhou, J. Mol. Catal. A: Chem. 258(1/2), 104–112 (2006)
W. Kai, Z. Li-Juan, X. Zhi-Jian, Q. Bin, D. Lan-Bo, Z. Xiu-Ling, J. Inorg. Mater. 29(2), 131–136 (2014)
X.B. Chen, Y.B. Lou, A.C.S. Samia, C. Burda, J.L. Gole, Adv. Funct. Mater. 15, 41–49 (2005)
H. Wang, Y. Wu, B.Q. Xu, Appl. Catal. B 59, 139–146 (2005)
T. Ohsaka, F. Izumi, Y. Fujiki, J. Raman Spectrosc. 7(6), 321–324 (1978)
B.D. Cullity, Elements of X-Ray Diffraction (Addison-Wesly Publishing Co. Inc, Washington, 1976). (Ch. 14.)
D.B. Warheit, R.A. Hoke, C. Finlay, E.M. Donner, K.L. Reed, C.M. Sayes, Toxicol. Lett. 171, 99–110 (2007)
E. Fabian, R. Landsiedel, L. Ma-Hock, K. Wiench, W. Wohlleben, B. Van Ravenzwaay. Arch. Toxicol. 82, 151–157 (2008)
R. Carbone, I. Marangi, A. Zanardi, L. Giorgetti, E. Chierici, G. Berlanda, A. Podestà, F. Fiorentini, G. Bongiorno, P. Piseri, P.G. Pelicci, P. Milani, Biomaterials 27, 3221–3229 (2006)
M.T. Uddin, O. Babot, L. Thomas, C. Olivier, M. Redaelli, M. D’Arienzo, F. Morazzoni, W. Jaegermann, N. Rockstroh, H. Junge, T. Toupance, J. Phys. Chem. C 119(13), 7006–7015 (2015)
M.T. Uddin, Y. Nicolas, C. Olivier, T. Toupance, M.M. Müller, H.J. Kleebe, K. Rachut, J. Ziegler, A. Klein, W. Jaegermann, J. Phys. Chem. C 117(42), 22098–22110 (2013)
D.C. Hurum, A.G. Agrios, K.A. Gray, T. Rajh, M.C. Thurnauer, J. Phys. Chem. B 107, 4545–4549 (2003)
K.R.N. Pai, G.S. Anjusree, T.G. Deepak, D. Subash, S.V. Nair, A.S. Nair, RSC Adv. 4, 36821–36827 (2014)
M. Ouzzine, J.A. Maciá-Agulló, M.A. Lillo-Ródenas, C. Quijad, A. Linares-Solano, Appl. Catal. B Environ. 154–155, 285–293 (2014)
V. Subramanian, E.E. Wolf, P.V. Kamat, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 126, 4943–4950 (2004)
M. Murdoch, G.I.N. Waterhouse, M.A. Nadeem, J.B. Metson, M.A. Keane, R.F. Howe, J. Llorca, H. Idriss, Nat. Chem. 3, 489–492 (2011)
A. Primo, A. Corma, H. Garcia, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 13, 886–910 (2011)
K. Awazu, M. Fujimaki, C. Rockstuhl, J. Tominaga, H. Murakami, Y. Ohki, N. Yoshida, T. Watanabe, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 130, 1676–1680 (2008)
C.G. Silva, R. Juarez, T. Marino, R. Molinari, H. Garcia, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 133, 595–602 (2011)
M. Ni, M.K.H. Leung, D.Y.C. Leung, K. Sumathy, Energy Rev. 11, 401–425 (2007)
D. Jing, L. Guo, Catal. Commun. 8, 795–799 (2007)
J. Yu, L. Qi, M. Jaroniec, J. Phys. Chem. C 114, 13118–13125 (2010)
Y. Attia, Mater. Express 7(3), 211–219 (2016)
Y. Attia, D. Buceta, C. Blanco-Varela, M. Mohamed, G. Barone, M. López-Quintela, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 136(4), 1182–1185 (2014)
Acknowledgements
We want to acknowledge the members of NILES in Cairo University (Egypt), Taif University (Saudi Arabia) and Nanomag (Spain).
Author contributions
TA and YA conceived and designed the experiments; TA and YA performed the experiments; YA analyzed the data; TA contributed reagents, materials, and analysis tools; YA wrote the paper.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
We declare no conflict of interest. The funding sponsors had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Attia, Y.A., Altalhi, T.A. Low-cost synthesis of titanium dioxide anatase nanoclusters as advanced materials for hydrogen photoproduction. Res Chem Intermed 43, 4051–4062 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11164-017-2862-2
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11164-017-2862-2