Abstract
Substantial research documents higher pollution levels in minority neighborhoods, but little research evaluates how residents perceive their own communities’ pollution risks. According to “neighborhood stigma” theory, survey respondents share a cultural bias that minorities cause social dysfunction, leading to over-reports of dysfunction in minority communities. This study investigates perceptions of residential outdoor air quality by linking objective data on built and social environments with multiple measures of pollution and a representative survey of Chicago residents. Consistent with the scholarly narrative, results show that air quality is rated worse where minorities and poverty are concentrated, even after extensive adjustment for objective pollution and built environment measures. Perceptions of air pollution may thus be driven by neighborhood socioeconomic position far more than by respondents’ ability to perceive pollution. The finding that 63.5 % of the sample reported excellent or good air quality helps to explain current challenging in promoting environmental action.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
The aggregated measures are constructed using HLM software, version 6, and are the neighborhood level residuals when controlling for the standard demographic variables used in model 1, using empirical Bayes estimation (Mujahid et al. 2007).
The intraclass correlation for ordinal logit models is calculated as τ/(τ + 3.29), where τ is the variance of the random intercepts (Skrondal and Rabe-Hesketh 2004).
References
Anselin, L., & Gallo, J. L. (2006). Interpolation of air quality measures in hedonic house price models: Spatial aspects. Spatial Econometric Analysis, 1(1), 32–52.
Ansolabehere, S., & Konisky, D. M. (2009). Public attitudes toward construction of new power plants. Public Opinion Quarterly, 73(3), 566–577. doi:10.1093/poq/nfp041.
Baden, B. M., & Coursey, D. L. (2002). The locality of waste sites within the City of Chicago: A demographic, social, and economic analysis. Resource and Energy Economics, 24, 53–93.
Bolin, B., Nelson, A., Hackett, E., Pijawka, K. D., Smith, C. S., Sicotte, D., et al. (2002). The ecology of technological risk in a Sunbelt city. Environment and Planning A, 34, 317–339.
Breslow, N. E., & Day, N. E. (1980). Statistical methods in cancer research: volume 1: The analysis of case-control studies. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer.
Chasco, C., & Gallo, J. L. (2013). The impact of objective and subjective measures of air quality and noise on house prices: A multilevel approach for downtown Madrid. Economic Geography, 89(2), 127–148. doi:10.1111/j.1944-8287.2012.01172.x.
Chicago Metropolitan Agency for Planning. (2006). Data Bulletin: 2001 Land-use Inventory for Northeastern Illinois Retrieved April 2010, from http://www.cmap.illinois.gov/LandUseInventory2005.aspx?ekmensel=c580fa7b_8_16_15051_4
Cox, D. R., & Hinkley, D. V. (1974). Theoretical statistics. London: Chapman and Hall.
Crowder, K., & Downey, L. (2010). Inter-neighborhood migration, race, and environmental hazards: Modeling micro-level processes of environmental inequality. American Journal of Sociology, 115(4), 1110–1149.
Diez Roux, A. V., & Mair, C. (2010). Neighborhoods and health. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1186, 125–145.
Dolinoy, D. C., & Miranda, M. L. (2004). GIS modeling of air toxics releases from TRI-reporting and non-TRI-reporting facilities: Impacts for environmental justice. Environmental Health Perspectives, 112(17), 1717–1724.
Downey, L. (2007). US Metropolitan-area variation in environmental inequality outcomes. Urban Studies, 44(5/6), 953–977.
Downey, L., & Crowder, K. (2011). Using distance decay techniques and household-level data to explore regional variation in environmental inequality. In J. A. Maantay & S. McLafferty (Eds.), Geospatial analysis of environmental health (Vol. 4, pp. 373–394). Netherlands: Springer.
Escarce, J. J., Lurie, N., & Jewell, A. (2011). RAND Center for Population Health and Health Disparities (CPHHD) Data Core Series: Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social Research (ICPSR) [distributor].
Frank, L. D., Sallis, J. F., Saelens, B. E., Leary, L., Cain, K., Conway, T. L., & Hess, P. M. (2009). The development of a walkability index: Application to the neighborhood quality of life study. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 143, 124–131.
Franzini, L., Caughy, M. O. B., Nettles, S. M., & O’Campo, P. (2008). Perceptions of disorder: Contributions of neighborhood characteristics to subjective perceptions of disorder. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 28(1), 83–93. doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2007.08.003.
Gallup. (2014). Environment Retrieved April 9, 2014, from http://www.gallup.com/poll/1615/environment.aspx
Gee, G. C., & Takeuchi, D. T. (2004). Traffic stress, vehicular burden and well-being: A multilevel analysis. Social Science and Medicine, 59(2), 405–414.
Hunter, L. M. (2000). The spatial association between U.S. Immigrant residential concentration and environmental hazards. International Migration Review, 34(2), 460–488.
Kelling, G. L., & Coles, C. M. (1996). Fixing broken windows: Restoring order and reducing crime in our communities. New York: Touchstone.
Kim, S. G., Cho, S. H., Lambert, D. M., & Roberts, R. K. (2010). Measuring the value of air quality: Application of the spatial hedonic model. Air Quality, Atmosphere and Health, 3(1), 41–51.
King, K. E. (2012a). Aggravating conditions: Cynical hostility and neighborhood ambient stressors. Social Science and Medicine, 75(12), 2258–2266.
King, K. E. (2012b). Comparison of systematic social observation and aerial photography data on land use in Chicago. Michigan: Population Studies Center, University of Michigan.
King, K. E. (2013a). Jane Jacobs and ‘The Need for Aged Buildings’: Neighborhood historical development pace and community social relations. Urban Studies, 50(12), 2407–2424.
King, K. E. (2013b). Neighborhood walkable urban form and C-reactive protein. Preventive Medicine, 57(6), 850–854.
King, K. E. (2014). Dr. King responds to “History of Place, Life Course, and Health Inequalities”. American Journal of Epidemiology,. doi:10.1093/aje/kwu315.
King, K. E., & Clarke, P. J. (2014). A disadvantaged advantage in walkability: Findings from socioeconomic and geographical analysis of national built environment data in the United States. American Journal of Epidemiology,. doi:10.1093/aje/kwu310.
King, K. E., & Ogle, C. M. (2014). Negative life events vary by neighborhood and mediate the relation between neighborhood context and psychological well-being. PLoS ONE,. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0093539.
Laurian, L. (2003). A prerequisite for participation: environmental knowledge and what residents know about local toxic sites. Journal of Planning Education and Research, 22, 257–269.
Long, J. S., & Freese, J. (2006). Regression models for categorical and limited dependent variables using Stata (2nd ed.). College Station, TX: Stata Press.
Mohai, P. (1997). Gender differences in the perception of most important environmental problems. Race, Gender, and Class, 5(1), 153.
Mohai, P., & Bryant, B. (1998). Is there a “Race” effect on concern for environmental quality? Public Opinion Quarterly, 62, 475–505.
Mohai, P., & Bryant, B. (2003). Dispelling Old Myths: African American. Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development, 45(5), 10–26.
Mohai, P., Lantz, P. M., Morenoff, J., House, J. S., & Mero, R. P. (2009a). Racial and socioeconomic disparities in residential proximity to polluting industrial facilities: Evidence from the Americans’ changing lives study. American Journal of Public Health, 99(S3), S649–S656.
Mohai, P., Pellow, D., & Roberts, J. T. (2009b). Environmental justice. Annual Review of Environmental Resources, 34, 405–430.
Mohai, P., & Saha, R. (2007). Racial inequality in the distribution of hazardous waste: A national-level reassessment. Social Problems, 54(3), 343–370.
Morello-Frosch, R., & Lopez, R. (2006). The riskscape and the colorline: Examining the role of segregation in environmental health disparities. Environmental Research, 102(2), 181–196.
Morenoff, J. D., House, J. S., Hansen, B. B., Williams, D., Kaplan, G., & Hunte, H. (2008). understanding social disparities in hypertension prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control: The role of neighborhood context. Social Science and Medicine, 65, 1853–1866.
Morenoff, J. D., & Sampson, R. J. (1997). Violent crime and the spatial dynamics of neighborhood transition: Chicago, 1970–1990. Social Forces, 76(1), 31–64.
Mujahid, M. S., Diez Roux, A. V., Morenoff, J. D., & Raghunathan, T. (2007). Assessing the measurement properties of neighborhood scales: From psychometrics to ecometrics. American Journal of Epidemiology, 165(8), 858–867.
Peek, M. K., Cutchin, M. P., Freeman, D. H., Stowe, R. P., & Goodwin, J. S. (2009). Environmental hazards and stress: Evidence from the Texas City Stress and Health Study. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 63, 792–798.
Perkins, D. D., & Taylor, R. B. (1996). Ecological Assessments of community disorder: Their relationship to fear of crime and theoretical implications. American Journal of Community Psychology, 24, 63–107.
PHDCN. Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods: http://www.icpsr.umich.edu/icpsrweb/PHDCN/about.jsp
Quillian, L., & Pager, D. (2001). Black neighbors, higher crime? The role of racial stereotypes in evaluations of neighborhood crime. American Journal of Sociology, 107(3), 717–767.
Rabe-Hesketh, S., & Skrondal, A. (2012). Multilevel and longitudinal modeling using Stata (3rd ed. Vol. Volume II: categorical responses, counts, and survival). College Station, TX: Stata Press.
Saha, R., & Mohai, P. (2005). Historical context and hazardous waste facility siting: Understanding temporal patterns in Michigan. Social Problems, 52, 618–648.
Sampson, R. J. (2012). Chicago and the enduring neighborhood effect. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Sampson, R. J., & Groves, W. B. (1989). Community structure and crime: Testing social disorganization theory. American Journal of Sociology, 94, 774–802.
Sampson, R. J., & Raudenbush, S. W. (2004). Seeing disorder: Neighborhood stigma and the social construction of “Broken Windows”. Social Psychology Quarterly, 67(4), 319–342.
Scorecard. (2011). Criteria Air Pollutant Report: Cook County, IL, from http://scorecard.goodguide.com
Sicotte, D., & Swanson, S. (2007). Whose risk in Philadelphia? Proximity to unequally hazardous industrial facilities. Social Science Quarterly, 88(2), 515–534.
Skogan, W. G. (1990). Disorder and decline: Crime and the spiral of decay in American neighborhoods. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Skrondal, A., & Rabe-Hesketh, S. (2004). Generalized latent variable modeling: Multilevel, longitudinal, and structural equation models. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Smiley, M. J., Diez Roux, A. V., Brines, S. J., Brown, D. G., Evenson, K. R., & Rodriguez, D. A. (2010). A spatial analysis of health-related resources in three diverse metropolitan areas. Health & Place, 16(5), 885–892.
StataCorp. (2013). Stata Statistical Software: Release 13. College Station, TX: StataCorp LP.
Stenlund, T., Lidén, E., Andersson, K., Garvill, J., & Nordin, S. (2009). Annoyance and health symptoms and their influencing factors: A population-based air pollution intervention study. Public Health, 123(4), 339–345. doi:10.1016/j.puhe.2008.12.021.
Stradling, D. (2005). Air quality. The Electronic Encyclopedia of Chicago: Chicago Historical Society.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2002a). National Air Toxics Assessment, from http://www.epa.gov/ttn/atw/natamain/
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2002b). Toxics Release Inventory.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2011). An overview of methods for EPA’s national-scale air toxics assessment. Research Triangle Park, North Carolina: Office of Air Quality, Planning, and Standards.
Wang, F., & Feliberty, Y. C. (2010). Spatial distribution of toxic release inventory sites in Chicago area: Is there environmental inequity? In P. S. Showalter & Y. Lu (Eds.), Geospatial techniques in urban hazard and disaster analysis (Vol. 2, pp. 157–177). Netherlands: Springer.
Wilson, J. Q., & Kelling, G. (1982). The Police and neighborhood safety: Broken windows. The Atlantic Monthly, 127, 29–38.
Wolverton, A. (2009). Effects of socio-economic and input-related factors on polluting plants’ location decisions. The BE Journal of Economic Analysis & Policy, Berkeley Electronic Press, 9(1), 14.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported in part by an appointment to the Research Participation Program for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, administered by the Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education through an interagency agreement between the U.S. Department of Energy and the EPA and in part by the Michigan Center for Integrative Approaches to Health Disparities (P60MD002249) funded by the National Center on Minority Health and Health Disparities. The author gratefully acknowledges use of the services and facilities of the Population Studies Center at the University of Michigan, funded by NICHD Center Grant R24 HD041028. This work does not represent the official policies of the Environmental Protection Agency.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
King, K.E. Chicago residents’ perceptions of air quality: objective pollution, the built environment, and neighborhood stigma theory. Popul Environ 37, 1–21 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11111-014-0228-x
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11111-014-0228-x