Abstract
By planning the what, where, and when of pursuing a goal, people improve the likelihood that they will ultimately attain that goal. Whereas research to date has explored the breadth of this planning effect and its underlying processes, contextual variables that influence the formation and execution of plans have mostly gone unexplored. In light of the central role played by emotional experience in goal pursuit, its impact on planning remains an open question of both theoretical and practical importance. Here, we suggest that anger and sadness—and their corresponding, distinct cognitive appraisal patterns regarding control—differentially impact (1) the tendency to plan and (2) the implementation of plans. Anger (greater control) led to the formation of more plans for goal-directed behavior (Studies 1 and 2) and faster execution of real behavior as prescribed by predetermined plans (Study 3). Broader implications for theories of emotion and goal pursuit are discussed.
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Notes
The analyses were performed on log-transformed reaction time data to correct for skewness (Bargh and Chartrand 2000) but are reported in milliseconds.
To consider individual-level variability, we conducted a difference score analysis by subtracting for each participant the mean reaction time to critical trials from the mean reaction time to non-critical trials. A nearly identical pattern of results obtained.
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Acknowledgments
We thank the Motivation Lab at NYU and the Social Psychology and Motivation team at the University of Konstanz for feedback on this project and Eric Wang, Alex Jaudas, Paul Illg, Marina Bode, and Dominik Busching for their support with execution of the studies. This research was supported by grants to the second and third authors from the German Research Foundation.
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Appendices
Appendix 1
The landlord in your building doesn’t like you, and you are sure it is through no fault of your own. You always pay your rent on time and never have parties in your home. However, when you pass your landlord in the hallway of your building, he glares at you. This has gone on for some time.
You ask your neighbors, two friends, about their interaction with the landlord. They tell you that they are surprised to hear your hot water has gone not been looked at for weeks, as the landlord fixed their broken window within 2 days. They also ask you about the condition of your apartment, saying that the landlord told them you live in unsanitary conditions. You show your neighbors your apartment to show them that in fact your place is very clean.
One day, you arrive home and see a notice posted on your door. Upon closer inspection, you see that it is an eviction notice with your landlord’s signature on it. Although you have never received a warning or formal notice, you now have to vacate the apartment within 1 week. The landlord has no right to persecute you like this!
Appendix 2
Over the past several years, you have developed a strong bond with your pet. It is always there to greet you when you arrive home, and you really value the companionship it provides. It is truly a good friend.
Lately, though, it has been acting different than it used to. It has hardly any energy, stops eating its food, and seems to be sleeping all the time. You try to give it encouragement and support, but your pet doesn’t respond. After a few days, you start to become concerned about its health. That night, you have trouble sleeping for concern over your pet. The next morning, you find your pet has died in its sleep.
You try not to think about the fond memories you have of your pet, but you cannot keep them from creeping up on you. During the next several days, you are reminded of your pet’s death every time you see another animal like it. You consider getting a new pet but realize that it will not be the same. You wish your pet were still with you, but you realize that there is nothing you can do to bring it back.
Appendix 3
On a Saturday afternoon, you realize you need to go grocery shopping. You start to make your list by looking in the refrigerator and decide that you should buy milk, eggs, and orange juice. Next, you go to the cupboard and realize you are low on cereal, so you add that to the list. You put ‘paper towels’ on the list as well and are now ready to go to the store.
When you get to the store, you take a shopping cart and pull the list from your pocket. First, you pick up the cereal and decide to get some bread as well. You find the paper towels a few aisles over and then you walk with your cart to the refrigerated section. You get the orange juice first, then proceed to the dairy section, where you pick up the milk and the eggs. You proceed to the checkout lane, place your items on the conveyor belt, and pay with cash.
You take your items home with you and unload them. You put away the refrigerated items first. Next, you put the cereal and bread into the cupboard before finally placing the paper towels under the sink.
Appendix 4
Appendix 5
