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The bottle is half empty and that’s bad, but not tragic: Differential effects of negative functional reappraisal

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Abstract

Reappraisal has typically been viewed as a unitary construct, without looking at the specific ways in which it can be realized. Our main objective was to test a more ecological form of reappraisal, informed by cognitive behavioral therapy strategies of change. We compared two types of emotional regulation strategies (positive reappraisal and negative functional reappraisal), with each other and with a control condition. The primary outcome was negative emotion expression, but we also took into account other outcomes such as positive emotion generation and irrational and rational beliefs. Ninety undergraduate students took part in the study. Their task was to watch a distressful video, and subsequently practice one of the reappraisal or control instructions. Our results indicate negative functional reappraisal to be the most efficient strategy in fostering reductions in negative emotions, as well as in irrational beliefs. Also its efficiency appears mediated by changes in irrational beliefs.

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Notes

  1. The main effect of Gender was non-significant for negative emotions [F(1, 83) = 0.01, p = .90], positive emotions [F(1, 83) = .30, p = .58], irrational beliefs [F(1, 83) = .06, p = .80) and rational beliefs [F(1, 83) = .23, p = .62). The gender × instruction interaction effect was also non-significant for any of the outcomes considered: negative emotions [F(2, 83) = 1.16, p = .31), positive emotions [F(2, 83) = 0.01, p = .99], irrational beliefs [F(2, 83) = 1.20, p = .30)], rational beliefs [F(2, 83) = .21, p = .80].

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Acknowledgments

For this work, Diana Nagy benefited from financial support of the Sectoral Operational Programme for Human Resources Development 2007–2013, co-financed by the European Social Fund, under the project number POSDRU/107/1.5/S/76841 with the title “Modern Doctoral Studies: Internationalization and Interdisciplinarity”.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, Babes-Bolyai University, No. 37, Republicii St., 400015, Cluj-Napoca, Romania

    Ioana A. Cristea, Diana Nagy & Daniel David

  2. Department of Psychiatry, Neurobiology, Pharmacology and Biotechnology, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy

    Ioana A. Cristea

  3. Department of Psychology, Babes-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania

    Aurora Szentagotai Tatar

  4. Department of Oncological Sciences, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, P.O. Box 1130, New York, NY, USA

    Daniel David

Authors
  1. Ioana A. Cristea
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  2. Aurora Szentagotai Tatar
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  3. Diana Nagy
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  4. Daniel David
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Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ioana A. Cristea.

Appendices

Appendix 1: Profile of Affective Distress (PAD)

Enclosed bellow is a list of words that describe emotions people have in different situations. Read each word carefully and mark the version that best corresponds to the following question:

How are you feeling now?

Appendix 2: Attitudes and Beliefs Scale—II

For each item below, check the corresponding blank on the answer sheet with an “X” and select.

  1. A.

    If you strongly disagree

  2. B.

    If you somewhat disagree

  3. C.

    If you are neutral

  4. D.

    If you somewhat agree

  5. E.

    If you strongly agree

  6. 1.

    It’s unbearable being uncomfortable, tense or nervous and I can’t stand it when I am.

  7. 2.

    If important people dislike me, it goes to show what a worthless person I am.

  8. 3.

    It is disappointing to be disliked by people who are important to me, but I know it’s only disappointing and not awful.

  9. 4.

    When I feel tense, nervous or uncomfortable, I think it just goes to show what kind of a bad worthless person I am.

  10. 5.

    If important people dislike me, it is because I am an unlikable bad person.

  11. 6.

    It’s unbearable to fail at important things, and I can’t stand not succeeding at them.

  12. 7.

    It is unfortunate when I am frustrated by hassles in my life, but I realize it’s only disappointing and not awful to experience hassles.

  13. 8.

    If I do not perform well at things that are important, it will be a catastrophe.

  14. 9.

    I very much want to be liked by certain people, but I realize I don’t have to be liked by them.

  15. 10.

    When important people dislike me, I realize that it does not reflect on my worth as a person.

  16. 11.

    I must do well at important things, and I will not accept it if I do not do well.

  17. 12.

    I do not like to be uncomfortable, tense or nervous, but I can tolerate being tense.

  18. 13.

    When I fail at an important task, I can accept myself with my faults and limitations, and not condemn myself for failing.

  19. 14.

    It’s awful to do poorly at some important things, and I think it is a catastrophe if I do poorly.

  20. 15.

    I think that I can tolerate important people not liking or approving of me.

  21. 16.

    I am a good person and can accept myself, even if I fail at some tasks that are important to me.

  22. 17.

    When life is hard and I feel uncomfortable, I realize it is not awful to feel uncomfortable or tense, only unfortunate and I can keep going.

  23. 18.

    I can’t stand being tense or nervous and I think tension is unbearable.

  24. 19.

    If I do not perform well at tasks that are very important to me, it is because I am a worthless bad person.

  25. 20.

    I do not want to fail at important tasks but I realize that I do not have to perform well just because I want to.

  26. 21.

    It’s unpleasant to be tense, but I can stand the unpleasantness.

  27. 22.

    I can’t stand being disliked by people who are important to me, and it is unbearable if they dislike me.

  28. 23.

    It’s awful to be disliked by people who are important to me, and it is a catastrophe if they don’t like me.

  29. 24.

    I can’t stand not doing well at tasks that are important to me.

  30. 25.

    It’s important to be liked by certain people, but I understand that they don’t have to like me just because I want them to.

  31. 26.

    It is disappointing if I’m not doing well at tasks that are important to me, but I realize it is not awful or the worst thing in the world if I do not perform well.

  32. 27.

    I have worth as a person even if I do not perform well at tasks that are important to me.

  33. 28.

    Even when I feel tense, nervous or uncomfortable, I know that I am just as worthwhile as other people.

  34. 29.

    It’s essential to do well at important jobs; so I must do well at these things.

  35. 30.

    Sometimes I think the hassles and frustrations of everyday life are awful and the worst part of my life.

  36. 31.

    It’s important to have a pleasant life most of the time; however, I realize I do not have to have a pleasant life just because I want it.

  37. 32.

    It is a disappointment if I’m disliked by some people I like, and I realize it’s only unfortunate and not awful if they don’t like me.

  38. 33.

    I must be liked by important people, and I will not accept not being liked by them.

  39. 34.

    If I succeed less well than I would like to, it will be only disappointing and unfortunate.

  40. 35.

    I cannot tolerate not doing well at important tasks and it is unbearable to fail.

  41. 36.

    If someone important to me disapproves of me or rejects me, I realize I can tolerate and bear his/her disliking me.

  42. 37.

    I want to perform well at some things, but I do not have to do well just because I want to.

  43. 38.

    I do not perform well at things which are important, it will be a catastrophe.

  44. 39.

    I must have a pleasant, comfortable life most of the time, and I can’t accept it when life is a hassle.

  45. 40.

    If I am rejected by someone I like, I can accept myself and still recognize my worth as a human being.

  46. 41.

    When I feel tense or nervous, I think that it is only uncomfortable to feel tense or nervous and it is not awful.

  47. 42.

    It’s unpleasant not to perform well at important tasks, but I can bear the discomfort of doing less well that I would like to do.

  48. 43.

    I can’t stand hassles in my life.

  49. 44.

    I want to be liked and accepted by people whom I like, but I realize they don’t have to like me just because I want them to.

  50. 45.

    It’s awful to have hassles in one’s life and it is a catastrophe to be hassled.

  51. 46.

    I can’t stand being disliked by certain people, and I can’t bear the possibility of their disliking me.

  52. 47.

    It’s bad to be disliked by certain people, but I realize it is only unfortunate to be disliked by them.

  53. 48.

    It’s essential to be liked by important people, and I will not accept their not liking me.

  54. 49.

    I think it is awful and terrible to experience tension, nervousness or frustration, and having such feelings is the worst thing that can happen to me.

  55. 50.

    I get distressed if I’m not doing well at important tasks, but I can stand the distress of failing at important tasks.

  56. 51.

    I want to do well at important tasks, but I realize that I don’t have to do well at these important tasks just because I want to.

  57. 52.

    I must have a pleasant life and I will not accept hassles when I don’t want them.

  58. 53.

    If I am disliked by some important people, I realize I can bear their disliking me.

  59. 54.

    It is frustrating to be hassled but I can stand the frustration of being hassled.

  60. 55.

    It is awful and terrible to be rejected by people whom I want to like me.

  61. 56.

    When I experience hassles and/or my life is unpleasant, I believe I am a worthless person because I have hassles and/or an unpleasant life.

  62. 57.

    It’s only frustrating not doing well at some tasks, but I know I can stand the frustration of performing less than well.

  63. 58.

    I believe that I would be a worthless person if I achieved poorly at tasks that are important to me.

  64. 59.

    I must be liked and accepted by people I want to like me, and I will not accept their not liking me.

  65. 60.

    When I feel tense, nervous and uncomfortable, I realize that I do not have to feel comfortable just because I want to.

  66. 61.

    I would not be a worthwhile person if I kept failing at work, school, or other activities that are important to me.

  67. 62.

    When people I like reject me or dislike me, it is because I am a bad or worthless person.

  68. 63.

    When people whom I want to like me disapprove of me or reject me, I can’t bear their disliking me.

  69. 64.

    When I experience discomfort or hassles in my life, I tend to think that I am not a good person.

  70. 65.

    When I experience hassles, I realize that hassles are part of life and they do not have to disappear just because I want them to.

  71. 66.

    If I fail at tasks that are important to me, I realize that it is only disappointing to fail and not awful.

  72. 67.

    I must not feel tense, nervous or uncomfortable, and I believe that I cannot accept feeling badly.

  73. 68.

    When people whom I want to like me disapprove of me, I know I am still a worthwhile person.

  74. 69.

    Even when my life is tough and difficult, I realize that I am a person who is just as good as anyone else even though I have hassles.

  75. 70.

    I must be successful at things that I believe are important, and I will not accept anything less than success.

  76. 71.

    If loved ones or friends reject me, it is not only bad, but the worst possible thing that could happen to me.

  77. 72.

    When my life becomes uncomfortable, I realize that I am still a good person even though I am uncomfortable.

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Cristea, I.A., Szentagotai Tatar, A., Nagy, D. et al. The bottle is half empty and that’s bad, but not tragic: Differential effects of negative functional reappraisal. Motiv Emot 36, 550–563 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-012-9277-6

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