Skip to main content
Log in

Different Slopes for Different Folks: Genetic Influences on Growth in Delinquent Peer Association and Delinquency During Adolescence

  • Empirical Research
  • Published:
Journal of Youth and Adolescence Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

An extensive line of research has identified delinquent peer association as a salient environmental risk factor for delinquency, especially during adolescence. While previous research has found moderate-to-strong associations between exposure to delinquent peers and a variety of delinquent behaviors, comparatively less scholarship has focused on the genetic architecture of this association over the course of adolescence. Using a subsample of kinship pairs (N = 2379; 52 % female) from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth—Child and Young Adult Supplement (CNLSY), the present study examined the extent to which correlated individual differences in starting levels and developmental growth in delinquent peer pressure and self-reported delinquency were explained by additive genetic and environmental influences. Results from a series of biometric growth models revealed that 37 % of the variance in correlated growth between delinquent peer pressure and self-reported delinquency was explained by additive genetic effects, while nonshared environmental effects accounted for the remaining 63 % of the variance. Implications of these findings for interpreting the nexus between peer effects and adolescent delinquency are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. CNLSY siblings are the biological children of each mother from the NLSY79 sample. The classification process of distinguishing between full- and half-sibling pair status involved determining whether siblings shared a biological father. In order to determine this, mothers were asked whether the father of each child was currently living in the household (which was assessed every survey year from 1986 to 2000). If both siblings had a father living in the same household they were classified as full-sibling pairs and if only one sibling had a father living in the household they were classified as half-sibling pairs. Further information about additional procedures used to classify full- and half-sibling pairs in the CNLSY is available upon request.

  2. MZ twins who satisfied the criteria for inclusion in the present study (n = 12) were not included in the behavioral genetic models because they comprised an extremely small subsample of kinship pairs. Sensitivity analyses were conducted with the sample of MZ twins and model convergence was difficult to achieve.

  3. Due to the dichotomous nature of the items included in the delinquent peer pressure and delinquency index, the “kr20” command in Stata 12 was used to compute reliability coefficients. The “kr20” command is designed to calculate reliability coefficients for a set of dichotomous variables, whereas Chronbach’s alpha is designed for continuous variables.

  4. For a comprehensive review of the underlying assumptions of the ACE model see Barnes et al. (2014).

  5. We allow the error terms for each observed variable of each latent construct to correlate with one another, a strategy that is common when using a latent variable model. This technique is employed to address dependencies or shared error variance among variables which previous research has shown to be the case for self-report measures of peer influence and adolescent behavior (Bauman and Ennett 1996; Hill et al. 2008). As a result, unmeasured confounding influences on the items used to measure delinquent peer pressure and self-reported delinquency as latent factors are accounted for in the estimated bivariate LGCM.

References

  • Akers, R. L. (2011). Social learning and social structure: A general theory of crime and deviance. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Akers, R. L., & Jennings, W. G. (2009). The social learning theory of crime and deviance. In Handbook on crime and deviance (pp. 103–120). New York: Springer.

  • Albert, D., Chein, J., & Steinberg, L. (2013). The teenage brain peer influences on adolescent decision making. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 22(2), 114–120.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barnes, J. C., Beaver, K. M., & Boutwell, B. B. (2011). Examining the genetic underpinnings to Moffitt’s developmental taxonomy: A behavioral genetic analysis. Criminology, 49, 923–954.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barnes, J. C., Wright, J. P., Boutwell, B. B., Schwartz, J. A., Connolly, E. J., Nedelec, J. L., & Beaver, K. M. (2014). Demonstrating the validity of twin research in criminology. Criminology, 52, 588–626.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bauman, K. E., & Ennett, S. T. (1996). On the importance of peer influence for adolescent drug use: Commonly neglected considerations. Addiction, 91, 185–198.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beaver, K. M., Connolly, E. J., Schwartz, J. A., Al-Ghamdi, M. S., & Kobeisy, A. N. (2013). Genetic and environmental contributions to stability and change in levels of self-control. Journal of Criminal Justice, 41, 300–308.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beaver, K. M., Ratchford, M., & Ferguson, C. J. (2009). Evidence of genetic and environmental effects on the development of low self-control. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 36, 1158–1172.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berndt, T. J., & Keefe, K. (1995). Friends’ influence on adolescents’ adjustment to school. Child Development, 66, 1312–1329.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boisvert, D., Boutwell, B. B., Vaske, J., & Newsome, J. (2014). Genetic and environmental overlap between delinquent peer association and delinquency in adolescence. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 41, 58–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Button, T. M., Corley, R. P., Rhee, S. H., Hewitt, J. K., Young, S. E., & Stallings, M. C. (2007). Delinquent peer affiliation and conduct problems: A twin study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116(3), 554–564.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Christakis, N. A., & Fowler, J. H. (2008). The collective dynamics of smoking in a large social network. The New England Journal of Medicine, 358, 2249–2258.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cleveland, H. H., Wiebe, R. P., & Rowe, D. C. (2005). Sources of exposure to smoking and drinking friends among adolescents: A behavioral-genetic evaluation. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 166, 153–170.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Connolly, E. J., & Beaver, K. M. (2014). Examining the genetic and environmental influences on self-control and delinquency results from a genetically informative analysis of sibling pairs. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 29, 707–735.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crockett, L. J., Raffaelli, M., & Shen, Y. L. (2006). Linking self-regulation and risk proneness to risky sexual behavior: Pathways through peer pressure and early substance use. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 16, 503–525.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Daniels, D., & Plomin, R. (1985). Differential experience of siblings in the same family. Developmental Psychology, 21, 747.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ferrer, E., & McArdle, J. (2003). Alternative structural models for multivariate longitudinal data analysis. Structural Equation Modeling, 10, 493–524.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harden, K. P., D’Onofrio, B. M., Van Hulle, C., Turkheimer, E., Rodgers, J. L., Waldman, I. D., & Lahey, B. B. (2009). Population density and youth antisocial behavior. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50, 999–1008.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harden, K. P., Hill, J. E., Turkheimer, E., & Emery, R. E. (2008). Gene–environment correlation and interaction in peer effects on adolescent alcohol and tobacco use. Behavior Genetics, 38, 339–347.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harden, K. P., Quinn, P. D., & Tucker-Drob, E. M. (2012). Genetically influenced change in sensation seeking drives the rise of delinquent behavior during adolescence. Developmental Science, 15, 150–163.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harris, J. R. (1998). The nurture assumption: Why children turn out the way they do (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hill, J., Emery, R. E., Harden, K. P., Mendle, J., & Turkheimer, E. (2008). Alcohol use in adolescent twins and affiliation with substance using peers. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 81–94.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6, 1–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kandel, D. B. (1996). The parental and peer contexts of adolescent deviance: An algebra of interpersonal influences. Journal of Drug Issues, 26, 289–315.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kendler, K. S., & Baker, J. H. (2007). Genetic influences on measures of the environment: A systematic review. Psychological Medicine, 37, 615–626.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kendler, K. S., Jacobson, K., Myers, J. M., & Eaves, L. J. (2008). A genetically informative developmental study of the relationship between conduct disorder and peer deviance in males. Psychological Medicine, 38(07), 1001–1011.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kendler, K. S., Lönn, S. L., Maes, H. H., Sundquist, J., & Sundquist, K. (2014). The etiologic role of genetic and environmental factors in criminal behavior as determined from full-and half-sibling pairs: An evaluation of the validity of the twin method. Psychological Medicine, 1–8.

  • Lacourse, E., Nagin, D. S., Vitaro, F., Côté, S., Arseneault, L., & Tremblay, R. E. (2006). Prediction of early-onset deviant peer group affiliation: A 12-year longitudinal study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 63(5), 562–568.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lahey, B. B., Van Hulle, C. A., D’Onofrio, B. M., Rodgers, J. L., & Waldman, I. D. (2008). Is parental knowledge of their adolescent offspring’s whereabouts and peer associations spuriously associated with offspring delinquency? Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 807–823.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lansford, J. E., Yu, T., Erath, S. A., Pettit, G. S., Bates, J. E., & Dodge, K. A. (2010). Developmental precursors of number of sexual partners from ages 16 to 22. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 20(3), 651–677.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lynch, M., & Walsh, B. (1998). Genetics and analysis of quantitative traits. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Manke, B., McGuire, S., Reiss, D., Hetherington, E. M., & Plomin, R. (1995). Genetic contributions to adolescents’ extrafamilial social interactions: Teachers, best friends, and peers. Social Development, 4, 238–256.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McPherson, M., Smith-Lovin, L., & Cook, J. M. (2001). Birds of a feather: Homophily in social networks. Annual Review of Sociology, 27, 415–444.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meldrum, R. C. (2008). Beyond parenting: An examination of the etiology of self-control. Journal of Criminal Justice, 36, 244–251.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moffitt, T. E. (1993). Adolescence-limited and life-course-persistent antisocial behavior: A developmental taxonomy. Psychological Review, 100, 674–701.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Murray, J., Farrington, D. P., & Sekol, I. (2012). Children’s antisocial behavior, mental health, drug use, and educational performance after parental incarceration: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 138, 175–210.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998–2012). Mplus user’s guide. Los Angeles, CA: Muthén and Muthén.

  • Orme, D. R., Brehm, W., & Ree, M. J. (2001). Armed forces qualification test as a measure of premorbid intelligence. Military Psychology, 13, 187–197.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Petraitis, J., Flay, B. R., Miller, T. Q., Torpy, E. J., & Greiner, B. (1998). Illicit substance use among adolescents: A matrix of prospective predictors. Substance Use & Misuse, 33(13), 2561–2604.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Poelen, E. A., Engels, R. C., Scholte, R. H., Boomsma, D. I., & Willemsen, G. (2009). Similarities in drinking behavior of twin’s friends: Moderation of heritability of alcohol use. Behavior Genetics, 39, 145–153.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Posada, D., & Buckley, T. R. (2004). Model selection and model averaging in phylogenetics: Advantages of Akaike information criterion and Bayesian approaches over likelihood ratio tests. Systematic Biology, 53(5), 793–808.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Prescott, C. A. (2004). Using the Mplus computer program to estimate models for continuous and categorical data from twins. Behavior Genetics, 34(1), 17–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Purcell, S. (2002). Variance components models for gene–environment interaction in twin analysis. Twin Research, 5, 554–571.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rodgers, J. L., Buster, M., & Rowe, D. C. (2001). Genetic and environmental influences on delinquency: DF analysis of NLSY kinship data. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 17, 145–168.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rodgers, J. L., Johnson, A. B., & Bard, D. E. (2005). NLSY-children/young adult (1986–2000) kinship linking algorithm (unpublished manuscript).

  • Rodgers, J. L., Rowe, D. C., & May, K. (1994). DF analysis of NLSY IQ/achievement data: Nonshared environmental influences. Intelligence, 19, 157–177.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rodgers, J. L., Van Hulle, C., D’Onofrio, B., Rathouz, P., Beasley, W., Johnson, A., et al. (2014). Behavior problems and timing of mencarche: A developmental longitudinal biometrical analysis using the NLSY-children data. Behavior Genetics. doi:10.1007/s10519-014-9676-4.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rowe, D. C., & Osgood, D. W. (1984). Heredity and sociological theories of delinquency: A reconsideration. American Sociological Review, 49, 526–540.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scarr, S., & McCartney, K. (1983). How people make their own environments: A theory of genotype → environment effects. Child Development, 54, 424–435.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Silventoinen, K., Sammalisto, S., Perola, M., Boomsma, D. I., Cornes, B. K., Davis, C., et al. (2003). Heritability of adult body height: A comparative study of twin cohorts in eight countries. Twin Research, 6, 399–408.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Steinberg, L., Fletcher, A., & Darling, N. (1994). Parental monitoring and peer influences on adolescent substance use. Pediatrics, 93, 1060–1064.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stoolmiller, M. (1994). Antisocial behavior, delinquent peer association, and unsupervised wandering for boys: Growth and change from childhood to early adolescence. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 29, 263–288.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tarantino, N., Tully, E. C., Garcia, S. E., South, S., Iacono, W. G., & McGue, M. (2014). Genetic and environmental influences on affiliation with deviant peers during adolescence and early adulthood. Developmental Psychology, 50(3), 663–673.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • TenEyck, M., & Barnes, J. C. (2015). Examining the impact of peer group selection on self-reported delinquency: A consideration of active gene–environment correlation. Criminal Justice and Behavior. doi:10.1177/0093854814563068.

  • Van Hulle, C. A., Lahey, B. B., & Rathouz, P. J. (2013). Operating characteristics of alternative statistical methods for detecting gene-by-measured environment interaction in the presence of gene–environment correlation in twin and sibling studies. Behavior Genetics, 43, 71–84.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Van Hulle, C. A., Rodgers, J. L., D’Onofrio, B. M., Waldman, I. D., & Lahey, B. B. (2007). Sex differences in the causes of self-reported adolescent delinquency. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116, 236–248.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vitaro, F., Brendgen, M., & Lacourse, E. (2015). Peers and delinquency: A genetically informed, developmentally sensitive perspective. In J. Morizot & L. Kazemian (Eds.), The Development of Criminal and Antisocial Behavior (pp. 221–236). Springer International Publishing.

  • Vitaro, F., Tremblay, R. E., Kerr, M., Pagani, L., & Bukowski, W. M. (1997). Disruptiveness, friends’ characteristics, and delinquency in early adolescence: A test of two competing models of development. Child Development, 68, 676–689.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Walsh, A., Taylor, C. Y., & Yun, I. (2014). The role of intelligence and temperament in interpreting the SES–crime relationship. In K. M. Beaver, J. C. Barnes, & B. B. Boutwell (Eds.), The Nurture Versus Biosocial Debate in Criminology: On the Origins of Criminal Behavior and Criminality (pp. 91–109). Sage.

  • Warr, M. (2002). Companions in crime: The social aspects of criminal conduct. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Weerman, F. M. (2011). Delinquent peers in context: A longitudinal network analysis on selection and influence effects. Criminology, 49, 253–286.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Young, J. T. N. (2014). “Role magnets”? An empirical investigation of popularity trajectories for life-course persistent individuals during adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 43, 104–115.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Young, J. T. N., Rebellon, C. J., Barnes, J. C., & Weerman, F. W. (2013). Unpacking the black box of peer similarity in deviance: Understanding the mechanisms linking personal behavior, peer behavior, and perceptions. Criminology, 52, 60–86.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zimring, F. (1998). American youth violence: Studies in crime and public policy. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Roger Levesque and the anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments on earlier versions of the manuscript. We would also like to thank Lisabeth DiLalla and Paula Mullineaux for the opportunity to contribute to this important special issue on genetic influences on peer and family relationships across development.

Conflict of interest

The authors report no conflicts of interest.

Author contributions

EJC conceived of the study, performed the statistical analyses, created the tables and figures, and drafted the manuscript. JAS, JLN, KMB, and JCB assisted with the interpretation of the employed analyses and helped draft the manuscript. All authors have read and approved of the final version of the manuscript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Eric J. Connolly.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Connolly, E.J., Schwartz, J.A., Nedelec, J.L. et al. Different Slopes for Different Folks: Genetic Influences on Growth in Delinquent Peer Association and Delinquency During Adolescence. J Youth Adolescence 44, 1413–1427 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-015-0299-8

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-015-0299-8

Keywords

Navigation