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Sibling Relationships and Empathy Across the Transition to Adolescence

  • Empirical Research
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Abstract

Although socioemotional competencies have been identified as key components of youths’ positive development, most studies on empathy are cross-sectional, and research on the role of the family has focused almost exclusively on parental socialization. This study examined the developmental course of empathy from age 7 to 14 and the within-person associations between sibling warmth and conflict and youths’ empathy. On three occasions across 2 years, mothers, fathers, and the two eldest siblings from 201 White, working- and middle-class families provided questionnaire data. Multilevel models revealed that, controlling for youths’ pubertal status and parental education, girls’ empathy increased during the transition to adolescence and then leveled off, but boys’ lower levels of empathy remained relatively unchanged. Moreover, controlling for parental responsiveness and marital love, at times when firstborns and second-borns reported more sibling warmth and less sibling conflict than usual, they also reported more empathy than usual. The within-person association between sibling warmth and empathy also became stronger over time. Findings highlight gender differences in empathy development and the unique role of siblings in shaping each other’s socioemotional characteristics during adolescence.

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Acknowledgments

The authors are grateful to the graduate and undergraduate assistants, staff, and faculty collaborators for their help in conducting this study, as well as the participating families for their time and insights about youth development. This work was funded by a grant from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R01-HD32336) to Ann C. Crouter and Susan M. McHale, Co-Principal Investigators.

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  1. Department of Human Development and Family Studies, The Pennsylvania State University, 106 Beecher Dock House, University Park, PA, 16802, USA

    Chun Bun Lam, Anna R. Solmeyer & Susan M. McHale

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  1. Chun Bun Lam
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  2. Anna R. Solmeyer
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Correspondence to Chun Bun Lam.

Appendix: Equations for Multilevel Models of Empathy

Appendix: Equations for Multilevel Models of Empathy

Model 1

Level 1 equation

$$ {\text{Empathy}}_{\text{ijk}} = \pi_{{0{\text{jk}}}} + \pi_{{ 1 {\text{jk}}}} \times {\text{age}} + \pi_{{ 2 {\text{jk}}}} \times {\text{age}}^{ 2} + e_{\text{ijk}} $$

Level 2 equations

$$ \begin{gathered} \pi_{{0{\text{jk}}}} = \beta_{{00{\text{k}}}} + u_{{0{\text{jk}}}} \hfill \\ \pi_{{ 1 {\text{jk}}}} = \beta_{{ 10{\text{k}}}} + u_{{ 1 {\text{jk}}}} \hfill \\ \pi_{{ 2 {\text{jk}}}} = \beta_{{ 20{\text{k}}}} \hfill \\ \end{gathered} $$

where \( \left( {\begin{array}{*{20}c} {u_{0jk} } \\ {u_{1jk} } \\ \end{array} } \right)\sim N\left[ {\left( {\begin{array}{*{20}c} 0 \\ 0 \\ \end{array} } \right),\left( {\begin{array}{*{20}c} {\tau_{00k} } & {\tau_{01k} } \\ {\tau_{10k} } & {\tau_{11k} } \\ \end{array} } \right)} \right] \) Level 3 equations

$$ \begin{aligned} \beta_{{00{\text{k}}}} &= \gamma_{000} + u_{{00{\text{k}}}} \hfill \\ \beta_{{ 10{\text{k}}}} &= \gamma_{ 100} \hfill \\ \beta_{{ 20{\text{k}}}} &= \gamma_{ 200} \hfill \\ \end{aligned} $$

where \( u_{{00{\text{k}}}} \sim N\left( {0,\tau_{000} } \right) \)

Model 2

Level 1 equation

$$ {\text{Empathy}}_{\text{ijk}} = \pi_{{0{\text{jk}}}} + \pi_{{ 1 {\text{jk}}}} \times {\text{age}} + \pi_{{ 2 {\text{jk}}}} \times {\text{age}}^{ 2} + \pi_{{ 3 {\text{jk}}}} \times {\text{Pubertal transition}} + e_{\text{ijk}} $$

Level 2 equations

$$ \begin{aligned} \pi_{{0{\text{jk}}}}& = \beta_{{00{\text{k}}}} + \beta_{{0 1 {\text{k}}}} \times {\text{Gender}} + \beta_{{0 2 {\text{k}}}} \times {\text{Birth order}} + u_{{0{\text{jk}}}} \hfill \\ \pi_{{ 1 {\text{jk}}}} & = \beta_{{ 10{\text{k}}}} + \beta_{{ 1 1 {\text{k}}}} \times {\text{Gender}} + u_{{ 1 {\text{jk}}}} \hfill \\ \pi_{{ 2 {\text{jk}}}}& = \beta_{{ 20{\text{k}}}} \hfill \\ \pi_{{ 3 {\text{jk}}}}& = \beta_{{ 30{\text{k}}}} \hfill \\ \end{aligned} $$

where \( \left( {\begin{array}{*{20}c} {u_{0jk} } \\ {u_{1jk} } \\ \end{array} } \right)\sim N\left[ {\left( {\begin{array}{*{20}c} 0 \\ 0 \\ \end{array} } \right),\left( {\begin{array}{*{20}c} {\tau_{00k} } & {\tau_{01k} } \\ {\tau_{10k} } & {\tau_{11k} } \\ \end{array} } \right)} \right] \) Level 3 equations

$$ \begin{gathered} \beta_{{00{\text{k}}}} = \gamma_{000} + \gamma_{00 1} \times {\text{Parental education}} + u_{{00{\text{k}}}} \hfill \\ \beta_{{0 1 {\text{k}}}} = \gamma_{0 10} \hfill \\ \beta_{{0 2 {\text{k}}}} = \gamma_{0 20} \hfill \\ \beta_{{ 10{\text{k}}}} = \gamma_{ 100} \hfill \\ \beta_{{ 1 1 {\text{k}}}} = \gamma_{ 1 10} \hfill \\ \beta_{{ 20{\text{k}}}} = \gamma_{ 200} \hfill \\ \beta_{{ 30{\text{k}}}} = \gamma_{ 300} \hfill \\ \end{gathered} $$

where \( u_{{00{\text{k}}}} \sim N\left( {0,\tau_{000} } \right) \)

Model 3

Level 1 equation

$$ \begin{gathered} {\text{Empathy}}_{\text{ijk}} = \pi_{{0{\text{jk}}}} + \pi_{{ 1 {\text{jk}}}} \times {\text{age}} + \pi_{{ 2 {\text{jk}}}} \times {\text{age}}^{ 2} + \pi_{{ 3 {\text{jk}}}} \times {\text{Pubertal transition}} + \pi_{{ 4 {\text{jk}}}} \times {\text{WP sibling warmth}} \hfill \\ + \pi_{{ 5 {\text{jk}}}} \times {\text{age}} \times {\text{WP sibling warmth}} + \pi_{{ 6 {\text{jk}}}} \times {\text{WP sibling conflict}} + \pi_{{ 7 {\text{jk}}}} \times {\text{Parental responsiveness}} \hfill \\ + \pi_{{ 8 {\text{jk}}}} \times {\text{Marital love}} + e_{\text{ijk}} \hfill \\ \end{gathered} $$

Level 2 equations

$$ \begin{aligned} \pi_{{0{\text{jk}}}} = \beta_{{00{\text{k}}}} + \beta_{{0 1 {\text{k}}}} \times {\text{Gender}} + \beta_{{0 2 {\text{k}}}} \times {\text{Birth order}} + \beta_{{0 3 {\text{k}}}} \times {\text{BP sibling warmth}} + \beta_{{0 4 {\text{k}}}} \times {\text{BP sibling conflict}} + u_{{0{\text{jk}}}} \hfill \\ \pi_{{ 1 {\text{jk}}}} = \beta_{{ 10{\text{k}}}} + \beta_{{ 1 1 {\text{k}}}} \times {\text{Gender}} + u_{{ 1 {\text{jk}}}} \hfill \\ \pi_{{ 2 {\text{jk}}}} = \beta_{{ 20{\text{k}}}} \hfill \\ \pi_{{ 3 {\text{jk}}}} = \beta_{{ 30{\text{k}}}} \hfill \\ \pi_{{ 4 {\text{jk}}}} = \beta_{{ 40{\text{k}}}} \hfill \\ \pi_{{ 5 {\text{jk}}}} = \beta_{{ 50{\text{k}}}} \hfill \\ \pi_{{ 6 {\text{jk}}}} = \beta_{{ 60{\text{k}}}} \hfill \\ \pi_{{ 7 {\text{jk}}}} = \beta_{{ 70{\text{k}}}} \hfill \\ \pi_{{ 8 {\text{jk}}}} = \beta_{{ 80{\text{k}}}} \hfill \\ \end{aligned} $$

where \( \left( {\begin{array}{*{20}c} {u_{0jk} } \\ {u_{1jk} } \\ \end{array} } \right)\sim N\left[ {\left( {\begin{array}{*{20}c} 0 \\ 0 \\ \end{array} } \right),\left( {\begin{array}{*{20}c} {\tau_{00k} } & {\tau_{01k} } \\ {\tau_{10k} } & {\tau_{11k} } \\ \end{array} } \right)} \right] \) Level 3 equations

$$ \begin{aligned} \beta_{{00{\text{k}}}}& = \gamma_{000} + \gamma_{00 1} \times {\text{Parental education}} + u_{{00{\text{k}}}} \hfill \\ \beta_{{0 1 {\text{k}}}}& = \gamma_{0 10} \hfill \\ \beta_{{0 2 {\text{k}}}}& = \gamma_{0 20} \hfill \\ \beta_{{0 3 {\text{k}}}}& = \gamma_{0 30} \hfill \\ \beta_{{0 4 {\text{k}}}}& = \gamma_{0 40} \hfill \\ \beta_{{ 10{\text{k}}}}& = \gamma_{ 100} \hfill \\ \beta_{{ 1 1 {\text{k}}}}& = \gamma_{ 1 10} \hfill \\ \beta_{{ 20{\text{k}}}}& = \gamma_{ 200} \hfill \\ \beta_{{ 30{\text{k}}}}& = \gamma_{ 300} \hfill \\ \beta_{{ 40{\text{k}}}} = \gamma_{ 400} \hfill \\ \beta_{{ 50{\text{k}}}} = \gamma_{ 500} \hfill \\ \beta_{{ 60{\text{k}}}} = \gamma_{ 600} \hfill \\ \beta_{{ 70{\text{k}}}}& = \gamma_{ 700} \hfill \\ \beta_{{ 80{\text{k}}}}& = \gamma_{ 800} \hfill \\ \end{aligned} $$

where \( u_{{00{\text{k}}}} \sim N\left( {0,\tau_{000} } \right) \)

Note BP = between-person; WP = within-person.

Subscripts i indicates occasions within individual j in family k, j indicates individuals within family k, and k indicates families.

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Lam, C.B., Solmeyer, A.R. & McHale, S.M. Sibling Relationships and Empathy Across the Transition to Adolescence. J Youth Adolescence 41, 1657–1670 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-012-9781-8

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