Abstract
Current estimates suggest that by 2015, 60% of college students will be women, a change since 1970 when 59% were men. We investigated family dynamics that might explain the growing gender gap in college attendance, focusing on an ethnically diverse sample of 522 mixed sex sibling dyads from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. We examined whether the difference between sisters’ and brothers’ reports of their mothers’ expectations for, and involvement in, their education during adolescence predicted their differential odds of college attendance seven years later. Sisters were more likely than brothers to attend college, and this gap was more pronounced among non-Whites and non-Asians. Sisters also had higher grades in school than their brothers. Although there were no gender differences overall in maternal educational expectations or involvement, brothers reported greater maternal involvement than sisters in non-White and non-Asian families. After controlling for family background factors, the average of siblings’ reports of maternal treatment, and differences between siblings’ grades, the results revealed that as sisters reported greater maternal educational expectations than their brothers, it became more likely that only the sister rather than only the brother in the family attended college. The difference between brothers’ and sisters’ reports of their mothers’ educational involvement and their odds of attending college showed the same pattern of association but was not statistically significant. These results suggest that within-family social comparisons may play a role in sisters’ and brothers’ choices about attending college.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ansbacher, H. L., & Ansbacher, R. R. (1956). The individual psychology of Alfred Adler. New York: Basic Books.
Bearman, P. S., Jones, J., & Udry, J. R. (1997). The national longitudinal study of adolescent health: Research design. URL: http://www.cpc.unc.edu/projects/addhealth/design.html.
Bhanot, R., & Jovanovic, J. (2005). Do parents’ academic gender stereotypes influence whether they intrude on their children’s homework? Sex Roles, 52, 597–607. doi:10.1007/s11199-005-3728-4.
Bleeker, M. M., & Jacobs, J. E. (2004). Achievement in math and science: Do mothers’ beliefs matter 12 years later? Journal of Educational Psychology, 96, 97–109. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.96.1.97.
Buchmann, C., & DiPrete, T. A. (2006). The growing female advantage in college completion: The role of family background and academic achievement. American Sociological Review, 71, 515–541. doi:10.1177/000312240607100401.
Carter, R. S., & Wojtkiewicz, R. A. (2000). Parental involvement with adolescents’ education: Do daughters or sons get more help? Adolescence, 35, 29–44.
Cauce, A. M., & Domenech-Rodriguez, M. (2002). Latino children and families in the United States. In J. M. Contreras, K. A. Kerns, & A. M. Neal-Barnett (Eds.), Latino children and families in the United States (pp. 3–25). Westport, CT, USA: Praeger.
Colon, Y., & Sanchez, B. (2010). Explaining the gender disparity in Latino youth’s education: Acculturation and economic value of education. Urban Education, 45, 252–273. doi:10.1177/0042085908322688.
Conley, D. (2004). The pecking order: Which siblings succeed and why. New York: Pantheon.
Conley, D., Pfeiffer, K. M., & Velez, M. (2007). Explaining sibling differences in achievement and behavioral outcomes: The importance of within- and between-family factors. Social Science Research, 36, 1087–1104. doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2006.09.002.
Cook, T. D., & Furstenberg, F. F. (2002). Explaining aspects of the transition to adulthood in Italy, Sweden, Germany, and the United States: A cross-disciplinary, case synthesis approach. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences, 580, 257–287. doi:10.1177/0002716202580001011.
Downey, D. B., & Yuan, A. S. V. (2005). Sex differences in school performance during high school: Puzzling patterns and possible explanations. Sociological Quarterly, 46, 299–321. doi:10.1111/j.1533-8525.2005.00014.x.
Eccles, E. S., & Hoffman, L. W. (1984). Sex roles, socialization, and occupational behavior. In H. W. Stevenson & A. E. Siegel (Eds.), Child development research and social policy (Vol. 1, pp. 367–420). Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Else-Quest, N. M., Hyde, J. S., Goldsmith, H. H., & Van Hulle, C. A. (2006). Gender differences in temperament: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 33–72. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.1.33.
Feinberg, M., & Hetherington, E. M. (2001). Differential parenting as a within-family variable. Journal of Family Psychology, 15, 22–37. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.15.1.22.
Fisher, C. B., Wallace, S. A., & Fenton, R. E. (2000). Discrimination distress during adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 29, 679–695. doi:10.1023/A:1026455906512.
Flouri, E. (2006). Parental interest in children’s education, children’s self-esteem and locus of control, and later educational attainment: Twenty-six year follow-up of the 1970 British Birth Cohort. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, 41–55. doi:10.1348/000709905X52508.
Freese, J., & Powell, B. (1999). Sociobiology, status, and parental investment in sons and daughters: Testing the Trivers-Willard hypothesis. American Journal of Sociology, 104, 1704–1743. doi:10.1086/210221.
Garibaldi, A. M. (1992). Educating and motivating African American males to succeed. Journal of Negro Education, 61, 4–11. doi:10.2307/2295624.
Goldin, C., Katz, L. F., & Kuziemko, I. (2006). The homecoming of American college women: The reversal of the college gender gap. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 20, 133–156.
Graham, J. W., Marks, G., & Hansen, W. B. (1991). Social influence processes affecting adolescent substance use. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76, 291–298. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.76.2.291.
Grolnick, W. S., Kurowski, C. O., Dunlap, K. G., & Hevey, C. (2000). Parental resources and the transition to junior high. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 10, 465–488. doi:10.1207/SJRA1004_05.
Haggerty, R. J. (1989). Youth and America’s future: The forgotten half. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 10, 321–325. doi:10.1097/00004703-198912000-00007.
Hellerstein, J. K., & Morrill, M. S. (2011). Dads and daughters: The changing impact of fathers on women’s occupational choices. Journal of Human Resources, 46, 333–372.
Jacobs, J. A. (1996). Gender inequality and higher education. Annual Review of Sociology, 22, 153–185.
Jacobs, J. E., Chhin, C. S., & Bleeker, M. M. (2006). Enduring links: Parents’ expectations and their young adult children’s gender-typed occupational choices. Educational Research and Evaluation, 12, 395–407. doi:10.1080/13803610600765851.
Kiecolt-Glaser, J., & Newton, T. L. (2001). Marriage and health: His and hers. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 472–503. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.127.4.472.
Leaper, C., Anderson, K. J., & Sanders, P. (1998). Moderators of gender effects on parents’ talk to their children: A meta analysis. Developmental Psychology, 34, 3–27. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.34.1.
Lewis, S. K., & Oppenheimer, V. K. (2000). Educational assortative mating across marriage markets: Non-Hispanic Whites in the United States. Demography, 37, 29–40.
Lopez, E. M. (1995). Challenges and resources of Mexican American students within the family, peer group, and university. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 17, 499–508. doi:10.1177/07399863950174006.
McHale, S. M., Crouter, A. C., & Whiteman, S. D. (2003). The family contexts of gender development in childhood and adolescence. Social Development, 12, 125–148. doi:10.1111/1467-9507.00225.
McHale, S. M., Kim, J., & Whiteman, S. D. (2006). Sibling relationships in childhood and adolescence. In P. Noller & J. A. Feeney (Eds.), Close relationships: Functions, forms and processes (pp. 127–149). Hove, England: Psychology Press.
McKee-Ryan, F., Song, Z., Wanberg, C. R., & Kinicki, A. J. (2005). Psychological and physical well-being during unemployment: A meta-analytic study. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 53–76. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.90.1.53.
Mello, Z. (2008). Gender variation in developmental trajectories of educational and occupational expectations and attainment from adolescence to adulthood. Developmental Psychology, 44, 1069–1080. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.44.4.1069.
Noguera, P. A. (2003). The trouble with Black boys: The role and influence of environmental and cultural factors on the academic performance of African American males. Urban Education, 38, 431–459. doi:10.1177/0042085903038004005.
Roche, K. M., Ensminger, M. E., & Cherlin, A. J. (2007). Variations in parenting and adolescent outcomes among African American and Latino families living in low-income, urban areas. Journal of Family Issues, 28, 882–909. doi:10.1177/0192513X07299617.
Rogers, M. A., Theule, J., Ryan, B. A., Adams, G. R., & Keating, L. (2009). Parental involvement and children’s school achievement: Evidence for mediating processes. Canadian Journal of School Psychology, 24, 34–57. doi:10.1177/0829573508328445.
Sanders, M. G., & Herting, J. R. (2000). Gender and the effects of school, family, and church support on the academic achievement of African American urban adolescents. In M. G. Sanders (Ed.), Schooling students placed at risk (pp. 141–162). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Schafer, J. L. (1997). Analysis of incomplete multivariate data. London: Chapman & Hall.
Seltzer, J. A. (1991). Relationships between fathers and children who live apart: The father’s role after separation. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 53, 79–101. doi:10.2307/353135.
Shanahan, L., McHale, S. M., Crouter, A. C., & Osgood, D. W. (2008). Linkages between parents’ differential treatment, youth depressive symptoms, and sibling relationships. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 70, 480–494. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2008.00495.x.
Slomkowski, C., Rende, R., Novak, S., Richardson, E., & Niaura, R. (2005). Sibling effects on smoking in adolescence: Evidence for social influence from a genetically- informative design. Addiction, 100, 430–438. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2004.00965.x.
Spera, C. (2006). Adolescents’ perceptions of parental goals, practices, and styles in relation to their motivation and achievement. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 26, 456–490. doi:10.1177/0272431606291940.
Teachman, J. D. (1997). Gender of siblings, cognitive achievement, and academic performance: Familial and nonfamilial influences on children. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 59, 363–374. doi:10.2307/353476.
Teachman, J. D. (2000). Diversity of family structure: Economic and social influences. In D. H. Demo, K. R. Allen, & M. A. Fine (Eds.), Handbook of family diversity (pp. 32–58). New York: Oxford University Press.
Teachman, J. D. (2002). Stability across cohorts in divorce risk factors. Demography, 39, 331–351.
United States Census (2002) The big payoff: Educational attainment and synthetic estimates of work–life earnings. Retrieved October 18, 2011 (http://www.census.gov/prod/2002pubs/p23-210.pdf).
U.S. Department of Education (2008). Digest of education statistics. Retrieved October 18, 2011 (http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d08/tables/dt08_188.asp?referrer=report).
U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (2006a). Digest of education statistics. Retrieved October 18, 2011 (http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d06/tables/dt06_177.asp).
U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (2006b). Digest of education statistics. Retrieved October 18, 2011 (http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d06/tables/dt06_267.asp).
Wigfield, A., Eccles, J. S., Schiefele, U., Roeser, R. W., & Davis-Kean, P. (2006). Development of achievement motivation. In W. Damon & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology. New York: Wiley.
Wood, D., Kurtz-Costes, B., Rowley, S. J., & Okeke-Adeyanju, N. (2010). Mothers’ academic gender stereotypes and education-related beliefs about sons and daughters in African American families. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102, 521–530. doi:10.1037/a0018481.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by a grant from NICHD (HD045309), Nancy Landale, PI, and uses data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health) a program project directed by Kathleen Mullan Harris and designed by J. Richard Udry, Peter S. Bearman, and Kathleen Mullan Harris at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, and funded by grant P01-HD31921 from the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, with cooperative funding from 23 other federal agencies and foundations. Special acknowledgment is due Ronald R. Rindfuss and Barbara Entwisle for assistance in the original design. Information on how to obtain the Add Health data files is available on the Add Health website (http://www.cpc.unc.edu/addhealth). No direct support was received from grant P01-HD31921 for this analysis. We thank Mona Ostrowksi for her programming assistance during this project.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Bissell-Havran, J.M., Loken, E. & McHale, S.M. Mothers’ Differential Treatment of Adolescent Siblings: Predicting College Attendance of Sisters Versus Brothers. J Youth Adolescence 41, 1267–1279 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-011-9727-6
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-011-9727-6