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The Mammary Bud as a Skin Appendage: Unique and Shared Aspects of Development

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Journal of Mammary Gland Biology and Neoplasia Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Like other skin appendages, the embryonic mammary gland develops via extensive epithelial–mesenchymal interactions. Early stages in embryonic mammary development strikingly resemble analogous steps in the development of hair follicles and teeth. In each case the first morphological sign of development is a localized thickening in the surface epithelium that subsequently invaginates to form a mammary, hair follicle or tooth bud. Similar sets of intersecting signaling pathways are involved in patterning the mammary, hair follicle and dental epithelium, directing placode formation, and controlling bud invagination. Despite these similarities, subsequent events in the formation of these appendages are diverse. The mammary bud extends to form a sprout that begins to branch upon contact with the mammary fat pad. Hair follicles also extend into the underlying mesenchyme, but instead of branching, hair follicle epithelium folds around a condensation of dermal cells. In contrast, teeth undergo a more complex folding morphogenesis. Here, we review what is known of the molecular and cellular mechanisms controlling early steps in the development of these organs, attempt to unravel both common themes and unique aspects that can begin to explain the diversity of appendage formation, and discuss human genetic diseases that affect appendage morphogenesis.

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Abbreviations

ADULT:

acro-dermato-ungual-lacrimal-tooth syndrome

APC:

adenomatous Polyposis Coli

AREG:

Amphiregulin

AEC:

ankyloblepharon-ectodermal dysplasia-clefting syndrome

BCC:

basal cell carcinoma

BMP:

bone morphogenetic protein

DKK1:

Dickkopf 1

EDA:

Ectodysplasin

EDAR:

edctodysplasin receptor

EEC:

ectrodactyly-ectodermal-dysplasia-clefting syndrome

E:

embryonic day

FGFR:

fibroblast growth factor receptor

LMS:

limb-mammary syndrome

NRG3:

Neuregulin 3

SHFM:

non-syndromic split-hand/split-foot malformation

PTHrP:

parathyroid hormone-related protein

SEM:

scanning electron microscopy

SHH:

Sonic hedgehog

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Acknowledgements

Research in Sarah Millar’s laboratory is supported by NIH grants R01-AR47709 and R01- DE015342.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Developmental Biology Program, Institute of Biotechnology, University of Helsinki, PO Box 56, Viikinkaari 9, Helsinki, 00014, Finland

    Marja L. Mikkola

  2. Departments of Dermatology and Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA

    Sarah E. Millar

  3. Department of Dermatology, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, M8D Stellar-Chance Laboratories, 422 Curie Boulevard, Philadelphia, PA, 19104-6100, USA

    Sarah E. Millar

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  1. Marja L. Mikkola
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Correspondence to Sarah E. Millar.

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Mikkola, M.L., Millar, S.E. The Mammary Bud as a Skin Appendage: Unique and Shared Aspects of Development. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 11, 187–203 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10911-006-9029-x

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