Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Measuring Search for Meaning: A Factor-Analytic Evaluation of the Seeking of Noetic Goals Test (SONG)

  • Research Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Happiness Studies Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This study’s primary purpose was to examine the factor structure of the 20-item Seeking of Noetic Goals (SONG) test via exploratory and confirmatory factor-analytic procedures. An additional objective was to report on the measure’s incremental validity in comparison to the Search scale of the Meaning in Life Questionnaire (MLQ), an alternative measure of search for meaning. This study utilized data from three samples of American undergraduates (N = 908) from a medium-sized southern university. Factor analysis supported a two-factor model of the SONG, with patterns of correlation further suggesting the measure assesses distinct constructs. Multi-group confirmatory factor analysis indicated similar scale structure and item answering in terms of gender. Overall, the first factor yielded reliable scores that correlated significantly and in the expected direction with measures of well-being and psychological distress. The second factor did not yield reliable scores nor did it correlate significantly with many of the other measures administered. However, both factors were shown to significantly predict scores from measures of depression and general psychological distress after controlling for MLQ Search scale scores. We consider the data with respect to SONG scoring and interpretation, and discuss implications of these data for future research.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. The SONG’s copyright holder is Psychometric Affiliates. The first author and colleagues attempted to contact Psychometric Affiliates to request permission to print the items in their entirety; however, efforts to contact the company were unsuccessful. Similar to other studies where the measure is not available in its entirety, the general content of the item is briefly noted, and sample items are offered, as necessary context for the reader.

  2. For additional critiques of the SONG, the reader is referred to Hutzell (1987) and Dyck (1987).

  3. In the prior study, notable exceptions relate to items 2 (loading onto the first factor) and 16 (loading onto the second factor). In that study, items 16 and 18 also loaded onto both factors, but were assigned to factor 2 in large part to bolster the factor’s psychometric properties.

References

  • Baczwaski, B. J. (2011). A measure of interest to logotherapy researchers: The Seeking of Noetic Goals test. The International Forum for Logotherapy, 34, 113–114.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bailey-Richardson, B. (1985). Review of the Seeking of Noetic Goals test. In J. V. Mitchell (Ed.), The ninth mental measurements yearbook (Vol. II) (pp. 1338–1339). Lincoln, NE: The Buros Institute of Mental Measurements, The University of Nebraska-Lincoln.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baumeister, R. F., Vohs, K. D., Aaker, J. L., & Garbinsky, E. N. (in press). Some key differences between a happy life and a meaningful life. Journal of Positive Psychology.

  • Bentler, P. M. (1990). Comparative fit indexes in structural models. Psychological Bulletin, 107, 238–246.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bentler, P. M., & Bonett, D. G. (1980). Significance tests and goodness of fit in the analysis of covariance structures. Psychological Bulletin, 88, 588–606.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bollen, K. A. (1989). Structural equations with latent variables. New York, NY: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, T. A. (2006). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research. New York, NY: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1993). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. In K. A. Bollen & J. S. Long (Eds.), Testing structural equation models (pp. 136–162). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brunelli, C., Bianchi, E., Murru, L., Monformoso, P., Bosisio, M., Gangeri, L., et al. (2012). Italian validation of the Purpose in Life (PIL) test and the Seeking of Noetic Goals test (SONG) test in a population of cancer patients. Supportive Care in Cancer, 20, 2775–2783.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bryant, F. B., & Yarnold, P. R. (1995). Principal-components analysis and exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis. In L. G. Grimm & P. R. Yarnold (Eds.), Reading and understanding multivariate statistics (pp. 99–135). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cheung, G. W., & Rensvold, R. B. (1998). A bootstrap procedure for testing the statistical significance of goodness-of-fit indices in structural equations models. Paper presented to the Research Methods Division of the Academy of Management, San Diego, CA.

  • Cheung, G. W., & Rensvold, R. B. (1999). Testing factorial invariance across groups: A reconceptualization and proposed new method. Journal of Management, 25, 1–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cheung, G. W., & Rensvold, R. B. (2002). Evaluating goodness-of-fit indexes for testing measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling, 9, 233–255.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cronbach, L. J., & Meehl, P. E. (1955). Construct validity in psychological tests. Psychological Bulletin, 52, 281–302.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crumbaugh, J. C. (1977a). Manual of instructions: The Seeking of Noetic Goals test (SONG). Abilene, TX: Viktor Frankl Institute of Logotherapy.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crumbaugh, J. C. (1977b). The Seeking of Noetic Goals test (SONG): A complementary scale to the Purpose in Life test (PIL). Journal of Clinical Psychology, 33, 900–907.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crumbaugh, J. C. (1988). Everything to gain: A guide to self-fulfillment through logoanalysis. Berkeley, CA: Institute of Logotherapy Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crumbaugh, J. C., & Maholick, L. T. (1964). An experimental study in existentialism: The psychometric approach to Frankl’s concept of noogenic neurosis. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 20, 200–207.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crumbaugh, J. C., & Maholick, L. T. (1969). Manual of instructions for the Purpose in Life test. Abilene, TX: Viktor Frankl Institute of Logotherapy.

    Google Scholar 

  • Delle Fave, A., Wissing, M., Brdar, I., Vella-Brodrick, D., & Freire, T. (2013). Cross-cultural perceptions of meaning and goals in adulthood: Their roots and relations with happiness. In A. S. Waterman (Ed.), The best within us: Positive psychology perspectives on eudaimonia (pp. 227–247). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • DeVellis, R. F. (2011). Scale development: Theory and applications (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The Satisfaction with Life Scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71–75.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duffy, R. D., & Raque-Bogdan, T. L. (2010). The motivation to serve others: Exploring relations to career development. Journal of Career Assessment, 18, 250–265.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dyck, M. J. (1987). Assessing logotherapeutic constructs: Conceptual and psychometric status of the Purpose in Life and Seeking of Noetic Goals tests. Clinical Psychology Review, 7, 439–447.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fabry, J. (1988). Guideposts to meaning: Discovering what really matters. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fjelland, J. E., Barron, C. R., & Foxall, M. (2008). A review of instruments measuring two aspects of meaning: Search for meaning and meaning in illness. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 62, 394–406.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frankl, V. E. (1959/1985). Man’s search for meaning (Rev. ed.). New York, NY: Washington Square Press.

  • Frankl, V. E. (2010). In A. Batthyany (Ed.), The feeling of meaninglessness: A challenge to psychotherapy and philosophy. Milwaukee, WI: Marquette University Press.

  • Guttmann, D. (1996). Logotherapy for the helping professional: Meaningful social work. New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., Anderson, R. E., & Tatham, R. L. (2006). Multivariate data analysis (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haynes, S. N., Smith, G. T., & Hunsley, J. D. (2011). Scientific foundations of clinical assessment. New York, NY: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoelter, J. W. (1983). The analysis of covariance structures: Goodness of fit indices. Sociological Methods and Research, 11, 325–344.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hofmans, J., Pepermans, R., & Loix, E. (2009). Measurement invariance matters: A case made for the ORTOFIN. Journal of Economic Psychology, 30, 667–674.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoyle, R. H. (2000). Confirmatory factor analysis. In H. E. A. Tinsley & S. D. Brown (Eds.), Handbook of applied multivariate statistics and mathematical modeling (pp. 465–497). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Hutzell, R. R. (1987). Seeking of Noetic Goals (SONG) test. In D. J. Keyser & R. C. Sweetland (Eds.), Test critiques: VI (pp. 486–490). Kansas City, MO: Test Corporation of America.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hutzell, R. R. (1990). An introduction to logotherapy. In P. A. Keller & S. R. Heyman (Eds.), Innovations in clinical practice: A source book (Vol. 9, pp. 145–152). Sarasota, FL: Professional Resource Exchange.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jöreskog, K. G., & Sörbom, D. (1981). LISREL V: Analysis of linear structural relationships by the method of maximum likelihood. Chicago, IL: National Educational Resources.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kashdan, T. B., & Breen, W. E. (2007). Materialism and diminished well-being: Experiential avoidance as a mediating mechanism. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 26, 521–539.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • King, L. A., Hicks, J. A., Krull, J. L., & Del Gaiso, A. K. (2006). Positive affect and the experience of meaning in life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 179–196.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klinger, E. (2012). The search for meaning in evolutionary goal-theory perspective and its clinical implications. In P. T. P. Wong (Ed.), The human quest for meaning: Theories, research, and applications (2nd ed., pp. 23–56). Routledge: Taylor & Francis.

  • Lambert, M. J., Hansen, N. B., Umpress, V., Lunnen, K., Okiishi, J., Burlingame, G. M., et al. (1996). Administration and scoring manual for the OQ-45.2. USA: American Credentialing Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lorenzo-Seva, U., & Ferrando, P. J. (2006). FACTOR: A computer program to fit the exploratory factor analysis model. Behavior Research Methods, 38, 88–91.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). The how of happiness: A scientific approach to getting the life you want. New York, NY: Penguin Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lyubomirsky, S. (2013). The myths of happiness: What should make you happy, but doesn’t. What shouldn’t make you happy, but does. New York, NY: Penguin Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • McDonald, M. J., Wong, P. T. P., & Gingras, D. T. (2012). Meaning-in-life measures and development of a brief version of the Personal Meaning Profile. In P. T. P. Wong (Ed.), The human quest for meaning: Theories, research, and applications (2nd ed., pp. 357–382). Routledge: Taylor & Francis.

  • Melton, A. M. A., & Schulenberg, S. E. (2008). On the measurement of meaning: Logotherapy’s empirical contributions to humanistic psychology. The Humanistic Psychologist, 36, 1–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moreland, K. L. (1985). Review of Seeking of Noetic Goals test. In J. V. Mitchell Jr. (Ed.), The ninth mental measurements yearbook (pp. 1339–1340). Lincoln, NE: The Buros Institute of Mental Measurements, The University of Nebraska-Lincoln.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nunnally, J. C., & Bernstein, I. H. (1994). Psychometric theory (3rd ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Park, C. L., Mills, M. A., & Edmondson, D. (2010a). PTSD as meaning violation: Testing a cognitive worldview perspective. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 1, 1–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Park, N., Park, M., & Peterson, C. (2010b). When is the search for meaning related to life satisfaction? Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being, 2, 1–13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, C., & Park, N. (2012). Character strengths and the life of meaning. In P. T. P. Wong (Ed.), The human quest for meaning: Theories, research, and applications (2nd ed., pp. 277–295). Routledge: Taylor & Francis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pöhlmann, K., Gruss, B., & Joraschky, P. (2006). Structural properties of personal meaning systems: A new approach to measuring meaning of life. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 1, 109–117.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Preacher, K. J., & MacCallum, R. C. (2003). Repairing Tom Swift’s electric factor analysis machine. Understanding Statistics, 2, 13–43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D Scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1, 385–401.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reker, G. T., & Cousins, J. B. (1979). Factor structure, construct validity and reliability of the Seeking of Noetic Goals (SONG) and Purpose in Life (PIL) tests. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 35, 85–91.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schulenberg, S. E. (2003). Empirical research and logotherapy. Psychological Reports, 93, 307–319.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schulenberg, S. E. (2004). A psychometric investigation of logotherapy measures and the Outcome Questionnaire (OQ-45.2). North American Journal of Psychology, 6, 477–492.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schulenberg, S. E., & Gohm, C. L. (2009). An exploratory factor analysis of the Seeking of Noetic Goals test (SONG). In A. Batthyany & J. Levinson (Eds.), Existential psychotherapy of meaning: Handbook of logotherapy and existential analysis (pp. 503–511). Phoenix, AZ: Zeig, Tucker & Theisen.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schulenberg, S. E., Hutzell, R. R., Nassif, C., & Rogina, J. M. (2008). Logotherapy for clinical practice. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 45, 447–463.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schulenberg, S. E., & Melton, A. M. A. (2010). A confirmatory factor-analytic evaluation of the Purpose in Life test: Preliminary psychometric support for a replicable two-factor model. Journal of Happiness Studies, 11, 95–111.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schulenberg, S. E., Schnetzer, L. W., & Buchanan, E. M. (2011a). The Purpose in Life test-short form: Development and psychometric support. Journal of Happiness Studies, 12, 861–876.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schulenberg, S. E., Strack, K. M., & Buchanan, E. M. (2011b). The Meaning in life Questionnaire: Psychometric properties with individuals with serious mental illness in an inpatient setting. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 6, 1210–1219.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seligman, M. E. P. (2002). Authentic happiness: Using the new positive psychology to realize your potential for lasting fulfillment. New York, NY: Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seligman, M. E. P. (2011). Flourish: A visionary new understanding of happiness and well-being. New York, NY: Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sink, C. A., van Keppel, J., & Purcell, M. (1998). Reliability estimates of the Purpose in Life and Seeking of Noetic Goals tests with rural and metropolitan area adolescents. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 86, 362.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steger, M. F. (2006). An illustration of issues in factor extraction and identification of dimensionality in psychological assessment data. Journal of Personality Assessment, 86, 263–272.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steger, M. F. (2012). Experiencing meaning in life. In P. T. P. Wong (Ed.), The human quest for meaning: Theories, research, and applications (2nd ed., pp. 165–184). Routledge: Taylor & Francis.

  • Steger, M. F. (2013). Wrestling with our better selves: The search for meaning in life. In K. D. Markman, T. Proulx, & M. J. Lindberg (Eds.), The psychology of meaning (pp. 215–233). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Steger, M. F., Frazier, P., Oishi, S., & Kaler, M. (2006). The Meaning in Life Questionnaire: Assessing the presence of and search for meaning in life. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 53, 80–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steger, M. F., Kashdan, T. B., Sullivan, B. A., & Lorentz, D. (2008a). Understanding the search for meaning in life: Personality, cognitive style, and the dynamic between seeking and experiencing meaning. Journal of Personality, 76, 199–228.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steger, M. F., Kawabata, Y., Shimai, S., & Otake, K. (2008b). The meaningful life in Japan and the United States: Levels and correlates of meaning in life. Journal of Research in Personality, 42, 660–678.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steger, M. F., Mann, J. R., Michels, P., & Cooper, T. C. (2009). Meaning in life, anxiety, depression, and general health among smoking cessation patients. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 67, 353–358.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steger, M. F., Pickering, N. K., Shin, J. Y., & Dik, B. J. (2010). Calling in work: Secular or sacred? Journal of Career Assessment, 18, 82–96.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steiger, J. H. (1990). Structural model evaluation and modification: An interval estimation approach. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 25, 173–180.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, B. (2004). Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Tucker, L. R., & Lewis, C. (1973). A reliability coefficient for maximum likelihood factor analysis. Psychometrika, 38, 1–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Whittington, B. L., & Scher, S. J. (2010). Prayer and subjective well-being: An examination of six different types of prayer. International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 20, 59–68.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wong, P. T. P. (2012a). Introduction: A roadmap for meaning research and applications. In P. T. P. Wong (Ed.), The human quest for meaning: Theories, research, and applications (2nd ed., pp. xxix–xlvi). Routledge: Taylor & Francis.

  • Wong, P. T. P. (2012b). The meaning mindset: Measurement and implications. International Journal of Existential Psychology and Psychotherapy, 4, 1–3.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wong, P. T. P. (in press). Viktor Frankl’s meaning seeking model and contemporary positive psychology. In A. Batthyany & P. Russo-Netzer (Eds.), Meaning in positive and existential psychology. New York: Springer.

  • Yarnell, T. (1972). Validation of the Seeking of Noetic Goals test with schizophrenic and normal ss. Psychological Reports, 30, 79–82.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Robert R. Hutzell, Ph.D. and Paul T. P. Wong, Ph.D. for helpful comments on previous drafts of this manuscript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, The University of Mississippi, University, MS, 38677, USA

    Stefan E. Schulenberg & Brandy J. Baczwaski

  2. University of Mississippi Clinical-Disaster Research Center (UM-CDRC), University, MS, 38677, USA

    Stefan E. Schulenberg

  3. Department of Psychology, Missouri State University, Springfield, MO, USA

    Erin M. Buchanan

Authors
  1. Stefan E. Schulenberg
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Brandy J. Baczwaski
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Erin M. Buchanan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Stefan E. Schulenberg.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Schulenberg, S.E., Baczwaski, B.J. & Buchanan, E.M. Measuring Search for Meaning: A Factor-Analytic Evaluation of the Seeking of Noetic Goals Test (SONG). J Happiness Stud 15, 693–715 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-013-9446-7

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-013-9446-7

Keywords

Search

Navigation