Abstract
This research examines the relationship between family structure and subjective well-being and the extent to which cultural differences across 24 countries/regions may condition that relationship. Using the 2002 ISSP data, we examine how the effects of marriage status and the presence of children on happiness and satisfaction with family life differ according to the perceived importance of marriage and parenthood in society. We find significant cross-country differences in the relationship between presence of young children and the happiness of men, and in the relationship between the marital status of women and their happiness and satisfaction with family life.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
In the remainder of the text we refer to the macro-level unit of analysis as countries with the recognition that several are in fact regions (albeit ones with distinctive characteristics). Because the data for Bulgaria, Ireland and New Zealand do not contain detailed information on the family composition, these countries are not included in the analysis. In the tables and figures countries are referenced with the abbreviations as shown in Appendix 1.
The category ‘Can’t choose’ was explicitly provided in the questionnaire for this item as well as for that on satisfaction with family life.
The ISSP data allows only the distinction between children younger than the age of 6 in the household and children between the ages of 6 and 17. Depending on the country, the age boundary is set at either 5 or 6 years old (Zentralarchiv fur Empirische Sozialforschung 2004).
Analyses were conducted on the weighted dataset. For more information on the construction of the national weighting coefficients, consult the code book of the ISSP 2002 (Zentralarchiv fur Empirische Sozialforschung 2004).
The explained variance within and between the countries is calculated by looking at the degree in which the variance components σu and σe have diminished in comparison with the unconditional means model (Bryk and Raudenbush 1992).
For the results discussed above, the presented R² values are not the same as the traditional R² statistics in that they only refer to the proportion of ‘explained variance’. This means that we can obtain comparatively high values for this statistic without explaining a great deal of the overall variance (because there is not much to explain) (Singer 1998). Our variance at the country level is in any case relatively low (partially due to the small number of countries) and the proportion of contextual variables to the number of countries is relatively high, thus hindering the production of robust estimates.
References
Bianchi, S. M., & Milkie, M. A. (2010). Work and family research in the first decade of the 21st century. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 72, 705–725.
Bryk, A. S., & Raudenbush, S. W. (1992). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Buoazzaoui, B., & Mullet, E. (2002). Employment and family as determinants of anticipated life satisfaction: Contrasting young adults and elderly people’s viewpoints. Journal of Happiness Studies, 3, 129–152.
Cherlin, A. J. (2005). American marriage in the early twenty-first century. The Future of Children, 15, 33–55.
Christoph, B., & Noll, H.-. H. (2003). Subjective well-being in the European Community. Social Indicators Research, 64, 521–546.
Clark, A. E., & Oswald, A. J. (1994). Unhappiness and unemployment. The Economic Journal, 104, 648–659.
Coltrane, S., & Adams, M. (2008). Gender and families. Lantham, MD: Roman and Littlefield.
Coombs, R. (1991). Marital Status and personal well-being: A literature review. Family Relations, 40, 97–102.
Corijn, M., & Matthijs, K. (2004). Gehuwd en ongehuwd samenwonen in België: een sociaal-demografisch perspectief. Leuven: KUL Departement Sociologie.
Davis, S. N., & Greenstein, T. N. (2009). Gender ideology: Components, predictors and consequences. Annual Review of Sociology, 35, 87–105.
Davis, S. N., Greenstein, T. N., & Gerteisen Marks, J. P. (2007). Effects of union type on division of household labor: Do cohabiting men really perform more housework? Journal of Family Issues, 28, 1246–1272.
Diener, E., Gohm, C. L., Suh, E., & Oish, S. (2000). Similarity of the relations between marital status and subjective well-being across cultures. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 31, 419–436.
Diener, E., Scollon, C. N., & Lucas, R. E. (2003). The evolving concept of subjective well-being and the multifaceted nature of happiness. Advances in Cell Aging and Gerontology, 15, 187–219.
Evans, M. D. R., & Kelley, J. (2004). Effects of family structure on life satisfaction: Australian evidence. Social Indicators Research, 69, 303–349.
Evenson, R. J., & Simon, R. W. (2005). Clarifying the relationship between parenthood and depression. Journal of Health and Social Behaviour, 46, 341–358.
Gelissen, J. (2003). Cross-national differences in public consent to divorce: Effects of cultural, structural and compositional factors. In W. Arts, J. Hagenaars, & L. Halman (Eds.), The cultural diversity of the European unity. Findings, explanations and reflections from the European Values Study (pp. 339–370). Leiden: Koninklijke Brill.
Glenn, N. D., & McLanahan, S. (1981). The effects of children on the psychological well-being of older adults. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 43, 409–421.
Haller, M., & Hadler, M. (2006). How social relations and structures can produce happiness and unhappiness: An international comparative analysis. Social Indicators Research, 75, 169–216.
Hayo, B., & Seifert, W. (2003). Subjective economic well-being in Eastern Europe. Journal of Economic Psychology, 24, 239–348.
Headey, B., & Wearing, A. (1992). Understanding happiness: A theory of subjective well-being. Melbourne, Australia: Longman Cheshire.
Heinz, W. R. (2003). From work trajectories to negotiated careers: The contingent work life course. In J. T. Mortimer & M. J. Shanahan (Eds.), Handbook of the life course (pp. 185–204). New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.
Heston, A., Summers, R., & Aten, B. (2006). Penn World Table Version 6.2, Centre for International Comparisons of Production, Income and Prices at the University of Pennsylvania, September 2006.
Kim, H. K., & McKenry, P. C. (2002). The relationship between marriage and psychological well-being. Journal of Family Issues, 23, 885–991.
Kohler, H.-P., Behrman, J. R., & Skytthe, A. (2005). Partner + children = happiness? The effects of partnerships and fertility on well-being. Population and Development Review, 31, 407–445.
Kuijsten, A. C. (2002). Variation and change in family forms in the 1980’s. In F.-X. Kaufmann, A. C. Kuijsten, M. J. Schulze, & K. P. Strohmeier (Eds.), Family life and family policies in Europe (Vol 2). Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Lesthaeghe, R., & Van de Kaa, D. J. (1986). Twee demografische transities? In D. J. Van de Kaa & R. Lesthaeghe (Eds.), Bevolking: groei en krimp (pp. 9–24). Deventer, The Netherlands: Van Loghum Slaterus.
Liefbroer, A. C. (2005). The impact of perceived costs and rewards of childbearing on entry into parenthood: Evidence from a panel study. European Journal of Population, 21, 367–391.
Manning, W. D., Longmore, M. A., & Giordano, P. C. (2007). The changing institution of marriage: Adolescents’ expectations to cohabit and to marry. Journal of Marriage and Family, 69, 559–575.
Mastekaasa, A. (1994). The subjective well-being of the previously married: The importance of unmarried cohabitation and time since widowhood or divorce. Social Forces, 73, 665–682.
Matthijs, K. (2007). De verrassende actualiteit van het klassieke gezin. In R. Bulckens, D. Mortelmans, M. T. Casman, & C. Simaÿs (Eds.), Families in beweging. Een gezinsbeleid op maat? (pp. 51–62). Brussel: Luc Pire Uitgeverij.
McLanahan, S., & Adams, J. (1987). Parenthood and psychological well-being. Annual Review of Sociology, 13, 237–257.
Molenberghs, G. (2010). Multilevel Methodology. Presentation at the workshop on multilevel techniques in historical-demographical research (K.U.Leuven, June 17, 2010).
Reinhold, S. (2010). The link between premarital cohabitation and marital instability. Demography, 47, 719–733.
Risman, B. J. (1998). Gender vertigo. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Rummel, R. J. (1967). Understanding factor analysis. The Journal of Conflict Resolution, 11, 444–480.
SAS Institute Inc. (2002–2008). SAS version 9.2. Cary, NC, USA.
Shields, M., & Wooden, M. (2003). Marriage, children and subjective well-being. Paper presented at the Eighth Australian Institute of Family Studies Conference. Melbourne, Australia.
Simon, R. W. (1998). Assessing sex difference in vulnerability among employed parents: The importance of marital status. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 39, 37–53.
Singer, J. D. (1998). Using SAS proc mixed to fit multilevel models, hierarchical models, and individual growth models. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 24, 323–355.
Stack, S., & Eshleman, J. R. (1998). Marital status and happiness: A 17-nation study. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 60, 527–536.
Umberson, D., Pudrovska, T., & Reczek, C. (2010). Parenthood, childlessness and well-being: A life course perspective. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 72, 612–629.
Veenhoven, R. (1996a). The study of life-satisfaction. In W. E. Saris, R. Veenhoven, A. C. Scherpenzeel, & B. Bunting (Eds.), A comparative study of satisfaction with life in Europe (pp. 11–48). Budapest: Eötvös University Press.
Veenhoven, R. (1996b). Developments in satisfaction research. Social Indicators Research, 37, 1–46.
Veenhoven, R. (1997). Progrès dans la compréhension du bonheur. Revue Québécoise de Psychologie, 18, 29–74.
Veenhoven, R. (2000). Well-being in the welfare state: Level not higher, distribution not more equitable. Journal of Comparative Policy Analysis: Research and Practice, 2, 91–125.
Waite, L., & Gallager, M. (2000). The case for marriage: Why married people are happier, healthier and better off financially. New York: Double Day.
Waite, L. J., & Lehrer, E. L. (2003). The benefits from marriage and religion in the United States: A comparative analysis. Population and Development Review, 29, 255–275.
Watson, D., Pichler, F., & Wallace, C. (2010). Second European Quality of Life Survey; Subjective well-being in Europe. European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, Dublin, Ireland.
Wehner, C., & Abrahamson, P. (2004). Individualisation of family life and family discourses. Paper presented at the ESPAnet conference, September 9–11, 2004, Oxford.
Woo, H., & Raley, R. K. (2005). A small extension to ‘costs and rewards of children’: The effects of becoming a parent on adults’ lives. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 67, 216–221.
Zentralarchiv fur Empirische Sozialforschung (2004). Codebook. ZA Study 3880. ISSP 2002. Family and changing gender roles III [07.03.2008, Zentralarchiv fuer Empirische Sozialforschung http://www.gesis.org/ZA/].
Zimmermann, A., & Easterlin, R. A. (2006). Happily ever after? cohabitation, marriage, divorce and happiness in Germany. Population and Development Review, 32, 511–528.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Vanassche, S., Swicegood, G. & Matthijs, K. Marriage and Children as a Key to Happiness? Cross-National Differences in the Effects of Marital Status and Children on Well-Being. J Happiness Stud 14, 501–524 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-012-9340-8
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-012-9340-8