Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Psychometric Properties of the Training Parenting Style Scale in a Malaysian Sample of Adolescents: Factor Analysis, Internal Consistency, and Measurement Invariance

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Child and Family Studies Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The importance of parenting styles on children’s outcomes, including cognitive, social, academic, and values makes this topic a central concern to social researchers and psychologists. However, past research has reported controversial evidence on the relationship between authoritarian parenting and children’s outcomes in non-Western cultural contexts. This raises awareness on the implication of cultural differences in parenting styles. As a result, the training parenting style scale (TPSS) was proposed based on the Confucian concept of ‘Guan’ and ‘Chiao Shu.’ This scale is allegedly more reflective of the Asian parenting style. The present study examined the psychometric properties and measurement invariance of the Malay version of the TPSS across adolescents’ perceived maternal and paternal training and by adolescent gender. Of the 8 items in the original TPSS, confirmatory factor analysis supported 6-item scale with error correlations was the best-fitting model. Internal consistency was also good for the 6-item scale. Furthermore, support for configural, metric, scalar, residual, and structural invariance emerged across adolescents’ perceived maternal and paternal training and across adolescent gender. Results of this study supported the psychometric properties of the 6-item TPSS after taking into account several cautiously considered limitations.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Ali, S., & Frederickson, N. (2011). The parenting dimensions of British Pakistani and White mothers of primary school children. Infant and Child Development, 20(3), 313–329. doi:10.1002/icd.696.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baumrind, D. (1966). Effects of authoritative parental control on child behavior. Child Development, 37(4), 887–907. doi:10.2307/1126611.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baumrind, D. (1967). Child care practices anteceding three patterns of preschool behavior. Genetic Psychology Monographs, 75(1), 43–48.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brislin, R. W. (1980). Translation and content analysis of oral and written material. In H. C. Triandis & J. W. Berry (Eds.), Handbook of cross-cultural psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 389–444). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buri, J. R. (1991). Parental authority questionnaire. Journal of Personality and Social Assessment, 57, 110–119. doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa5701_13.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Byrne, B. M. (2010). Structural equation modeling with AMOS: Basic concepts, applications, and programming (2nd ed.). New York: Taylor and Francis Group.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chao, R. K. (1994). Beyond parental control and authoritarian parenting style: Understanding Chinese parenting through the culture notion of training. Child Development, 65(4), 1111–1119. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.ep7252822.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chao, R. K. (1995). Chinese and European American cultural models of the self reflected in mothers’ childrearing beliefs. Ethos, 23(3), 328–354. doi:10.1525/eth.1995.23.3.02a00030.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chao, R. K. (2001). Extending research on the consequences of parenting style for Chinese Americans and European Americans. Child Development, 72(6), 1832–1843. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00381.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chao, R. K., & Kaeochinda, K. F. (2010). Parental sacrifice and acceptance as distinct dimensions of parental support among Chinese and Filipino American adolescents. In S. T. Russell, L. J. Crockett, & R. K. Chao (Eds.), Asian American parenting and parent-adolescent relationships, Advancing responsible adolescent development (pp. 61–77). New York: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Chao, R. K., & Sue, S. (1996). Chinese parental influences and their children’s school success: A paradox in the literature on parenting style. In S. Lau (Ed.), Growing up the Chinese way: Chinese child and adolescent development (pp. 93–120). Hong Kong: Chinese University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chao, R. K., & Tseng, V. (2002). Parenting of Asians. In M. H. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of Parenting: Vol. 4. Social Conditions and Applied Parenting (2nd ed., pp. 59–93). Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cheah, C. S., & Rubin, K. (2003). European American and Mainland Chinese mothers’ socialization beliefs regarding preschoolers’ social skills. Parenting Science and Practice, 3, 1–22. doi:10.1207/S15327922PAR0301_01.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, F. F. (2007). Sensitivity of goodness of fit indexes to lack of measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling, 14(3), 464–504. doi:10.1080/10705510701301834.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cheung, G. W., & Rensvold, R. B. (2002). Evaluating goodness-of-fit indexes for testing measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling, 9(2), 233–255. doi:10.1207/S15328007SEM0902_5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Curran, P. J., West, S. G., & Finch, G. F. (1996). The robustness of test statistics to nonnormality and specification error in confirmatory factor analysis. Psychological Methods, 1(1), 16–29. doi:10.1037/1082-989X.1.1.16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Darling, N., & Steinberg, L. (1993). Parenting style as context: An integrative model. Psychological Bulletin, 113, 487–496.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deater-Deckard, K., Dodge, K. A., Bates, J. E., & Pettit, G. S. (1996). Physical discipline among African American and European American mothers: Links to children’s externalizing behaviors. Developmental Psychology, 32(6), 1065–1072. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.32.6.1065.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deater-Deckard, K., Dodge, K. A., & Sorbring, E. (2005). Cultural differences in the effects of physical punishment. In M. Rutter & M. Tienda (Eds.), Ethnicity and causal mechanisms (pp. 204–226). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Ho, C., Bluestein, D. N., & Jenkins, J. (2008). Cultural differences in the relationship between parenting and children’s behavior. Developmental Psychology, 44(2), 507–522. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.44.2.507.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6(1), 1–55. doi:10.1080/10705519909540118.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, K. H. (2005). The relation among fit indexes, power, and sample size in structural equation modeling. Structural Equation Modeling, 12(3), 368–390. doi:10.1207/s15328007sem1203_2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kline, R. B. (2004). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (2nd ed.). New York: Guildford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lam, C. M. (2007). Not grown up forever: A Chinese Conception of Adolescent Development. New York: Nova Science Publishers, Incorporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lau, S., & Cheung, P. C. (1987). Relations between Chinese adolescents’ perception of parental control and organization and their perception of parental warmth. Developmental Psychology, 23(5), 726–729. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.23.5.726.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meade, A. W., Johnson, E. C., & Braddy, P. W. (2008). Power and sensitivity of alternative fit indices in test of measurement invariance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(3), 568–592. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.93.3.568.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nunnally, J. C., & Bernstein, I. H. (1994). Psychometric theory (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Onder, A., & Gulay, H. (2009). Reliability and validity of parenting styles & dimensions questionnaire. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 1, 508–514. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2009.01.092.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Padmawidjaja, I. A., & Chao, R. K. (2010). Parental beliefs and their relation to the parental practices of Immigrant Chinese Americans and European Americans. In S. T. Russell, L. J. Crockett, & R. K. Chao (Eds.), Asian American parenting and parent-adolescent relationships: Advancing responsible adolescent development (pp. 37–60). New York: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Park, H., & Bauer, S. (2002). Parenting practices, ethnicity, socioeconomic status and academic achievement in adolescents. School Psychology International, 23(4), 386–396. doi:10.1177/0143034302234002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parker, G., Roussos, J., Hadzi-Pavlovic, D., Mitchell, P., Wilhelm, K., & Austin, M. P. (1997). The development of a refined measure of dysfunctional parenting and assessment of its relevance in patients with affective disorders. Psychological Medicine, 27(5), 1193–1203. doi:10.1017/S003329179700545X.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rebecca, P. A. (2006). Effects of parenting style on personal and social variables for Asian, adolescents. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 76(4), 503–511. doi:10.1037/0002-9432.76.4.503.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Robinson, C. C., Mandleco, B., Olsen, S. F., & Hart, C. H. (1995). Authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive parenting practices: Development of a new measure. Psychological Reports, 77(3), 819–830. doi:10.2466/pr0.1995.77.3.819.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shek, D. T. L. (2005). Perceived parental control and parent-child relational qualities in Chinese adolescents in Hong Kong. Sex Roles, 53(9–10), 635–646. doi:10.1007/s11199-005-7730-7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Simons, G. L., & Conger, R. D. (2007). Linking father-mother differences in parenting to a typology of parenting style and adolescent outcomes. Journal of Family Issue, 28(2), 212–241. doi:10.1177/0192513X06294593.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Somayeh, K., & Rozumah, B. (2009). Parenting style in a collectivist culture of Malaysia. European Journal of Social Science, 10(1), 66–73.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steenkamp, J.-B. E. M., & Baumgartner, H. (1998). Assessing measurement invariance in cross-national consumer research. Journal of Consumer Research, 25(1), 78–107.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steinberg, L., Dornbusch, S. M., & Brown, B. (1992). Ethnic differences in adolescent achievement in ecological perspective. American Psychologist, 47(6), 723–729. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.47.6.723.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stewart, S. M., & Bond, M. H. (2002). A critical look at parenting research from the mainstream: Problems uncovered while adapting Western research to non-western cultures. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 20(3), 379–392. doi:10.1348/026151002320620389.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stewart, S. M., Bond, M. H., Kennard, B. D., Ho, L. M., & Zaman, R. M. (2002). Does the Chinese construct of guan export to the West? International Journal of Psychology, 37(2), 74–82. doi:10.1080/00207590143000162.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stewart, S. M., Rao, N., Bond, M. H., McBride-Chang, C., Fielding, R., & Kennard, B. D. (1998). Chinese dimensions of parenting: Broadening Western predictors and outcomes. International Journal of Psychology, 33(5), 345–358. doi:10.1080/002075998400231.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Super, C. M., & Harkness, S. (1986). The developmental niche: A conceptualization at the interface of child and culture. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 9(4), 545–569. doi:10.1177/016502548600900409.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vandenberg, R. J., & Lance, C. E. (2000). A review and synthesis of the measurement invariance literature: Suggestions, practices, and recommendations for organizational research. Organizational Research Methods, 3(1), 4–70. doi:10.1177/109442810031002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Walker-Barnes, C. J., & Mason, C. A. (2001). Ethnic differences in the effect of parenting upon gang involvement and gang delinquency: A longitudinal HLM perspective. Child Development, 72(6), 1814–1831. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00380.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wu, C., & Chao, R. K. (2005). Intergenerational cultural conflicts in norms of parental warmth among Chinese American immigrants. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 29(6), 516–523. doi:10.1080/01650250500147444.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences and Liberal Arts, UCSI University, Jalan Menara Gading, Taman Connaught, 56000, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

    Chin-Siang Ang & Sin-Yun Fam

  2. Department of Social Care and Social Work, Faculty of Health, Psychology and Social Care, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK

    Jo-Pei Tan

Authors
  1. Chin-Siang Ang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Jo-Pei Tan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Sin-Yun Fam
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Chin-Siang Ang.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Ang, CS., Tan, JP. & Fam, SY. Psychometric Properties of the Training Parenting Style Scale in a Malaysian Sample of Adolescents: Factor Analysis, Internal Consistency, and Measurement Invariance. J Child Fam Stud 25, 1505–1514 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-015-0333-1

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-015-0333-1

Keywords

Search

Navigation