Abstract
Archaeological research on the Iron Age (1200–500 BC) Levant, a narrow strip of land bounded by the Mediterranean Sea and the Arabian Desert, has been balkanized into smaller culture historical zones structured by modern national borders and disciplinary schools. One consequence of this division has been an inability to articulate broader research themes that span the wider region. This article reviews scholarly debates over the past two decades and identifies shared research interests in issues such as ethnogenesis, the development of territorial polities, economic intensification, and divergent responses to imperial interventions. The broader contributions that Iron Age Levantine archaeology offers global archaeological inquiry become apparent when the evidence from different corners of the region is assembled.
Similar content being viewed by others
References Cited
Abou-Assaf, A. (1990). Der Tempel von ‘Ain Dara, Phillip von Zabern, Mainz.
Abu El-Haj, N. (2001). Facts on the Ground: Archaeological Practice and Territorial Self-Fashioning in Israeli Society, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Aharoni, Y. (1973). Beer-Sheba I: Excavations at Tel Beer-Sheba, 1969-1971 Seasons, Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv.
Aharoni, Y. (1975). Investigations at Lachish: The Sanctuary and the Residency (Lachish V), Gateway Publishers, Tel Aviv.
Aharoni, Y., and Amiran, R. (1958). A new scheme for the subdivision of the Iron Age in Palestine. Israel Exploration Journal 8: 171–184.
Ahituv, S. (2003). A new Moabite inscription. Israel Museum Studies in Archaeology 2: 3–10.
Albert, R. M., Shahack-Gross, R., Cabanes, D., Gilboa, A., Lev-Yadun, S., Portillo, M., Sharon, I., Boaretto, E., and Weiner, S. (2008). Phytolith-rich layers from the Late Bronze and Iron Ages at Tel Dor (Israel): Mode of formation and archaeological significance. Journal of Archaeological Science 35: 57–75.
Albertz, R., and Schmitt, R. (2012). Family and Household Religion in Ancient Israel and the Levant, Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake, IN.
Albright, W. F. (1943). The Excavation of Tell Beit Mirsim. Vol. III: The Iron Age, American Schools of Oriental Research, New Haven, CT.
Albright, W. F. (1949). The Archaeology of Palestine, Pelican Books, Baltimore, MD.
Alcock, S., D’Altroy, T., Morrison, K., and Sinopoli, C. (eds.) (2001). Empires: Perspectives from History and Archaeology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Amiran, R. (1969). Ancient Pottery of the Holy Land: From Its Beginnings in the Neolithic Period to the End of the Iron Age, Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, NJ.
Amiran, R., Ilan, O., Saban, M., and Herzog, Z. (1997). ‘Arad Ha-Kena‘anit: ‘Ir Sha‘ar la-Midbar; Tel Ha-Metsudot be-‘Arad (in Hebrew), Ha-Ḥevrah la-Haḳirat Erets-Yiʹsra‘el ṿe-‘Atiḳoteha, Rashut ha-‘Atiḳot, Hotsa‘at ha-Ḳibuts ha-Me‘uḥad.
Anderson, W. P. (1988). Sarepta I: The Late Bronze and Iron Age Strata of Area II, Y, Publications de l’Université Libanaise, Beirut.
Areshian, G. (ed.) (2013). Empires and Diversity: On the Crossroads of Archaeology, Anthropology, and History, Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press, Los Angeles.
Aruz, J., Benzel, K., and Evans, J. M. (eds.) (2008). Beyond Babylon: Art, Trade, and Diplomacy in the Second Millennium BC, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
Avigad, N., and Barkay, G. (2000). The lmlk and related seal impressions. In Geva, H. (ed.), Jewish Quarter Excavations in the Old City of Jerusalem, Vol. I, Israel Exploration Society, Jerusalem, pp. 243–266.
Avigad, N., and Sass, B. (1997). Corpus of West Semitic Stamp Seals, Israel Exploration Society, Jerusalem.
Bar-Matthews, M., and Ayalon, A. (2004). Speleothems as palaeoclimate indicators: A case study from Soreq Cave located in the eastern Mediterranean region, Israel. In Battarbee, R., Gasse, F., and Stickley, C. E. (eds.), Past Climate Variability through Europe and Africa, Springer, Dordrecht, pp. 363–391.
Barstad, H. M. (1996). The Myth of the Empty Land: A Study in the History and Archaeology of Judah during the ‘Exilic’ Period, Scandinavian University Press, Oslo.
Beit-Arieh, I. (ed.) (1995). Ḥorvat Qitmit: An Edomite Shrine in the Biblical Negev, Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv.
Ben-Shlomo, D., and Van Beek, G. (eds.) (2014). The Smithsonian Institution Excavation at Tell Jemmeh, Israel, 1970–1990, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.
Bennett, C.-M., and Bienkowski, P. (1995). Excavations at Tawilan in Southern Jordan, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Ben-Tor, A., Ben-Ami, D., and Sandhaus, D. (2012). Hazor VI: The 1990–2009 Excavations (The Iron Age), Israel Exploration Society, Jerusalem.
Bienkowski, P. (2002). Busayra: Excavations by Crystal M. Bennett 1971–1980, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Bienkowski, P. (2011). Umm al-Biyara: Excavations by Crystal M. Bennett in Petra 1960–1965, Oxbow Books, Oxford.
Bienkowski, P., and Galor, K. (eds.) (2006). Crossing the Rift: Resources, Settlements Patterns, and Interaction in the Wadi Arabah, Council for British Research in the Levant, Oxford.
Bikai, P. M. (1978). The Pottery of Tyre, Aris and Phillips, Warminster.
Biran, A. (1994). Biblical Dan, Hebrew Union College, Jerusalem.
Blanton, R. (1998). Beyond centralization: Steps towards a theory of egalitarian behavior in archaic states. In Feinman, G. M., and Marcus, J. (eds.), Archaic States, School of American Research Press, Santa Fe, NM, pp. 135–172.
Bliss, F. J. (1894). A Mound of Many Cities, of Tell el Hesy Excavated, Palestine Exploration Fund, London.
Bliss, F. J. (1906). The Development of Palestine Exploration, Scribner, New York.
Bloch-Smith, E., and Nakhai, B. A. (1999). A landscape comes to life: The Iron Age I. Near Eastern Archaeology 62: 62–92, 101–127.
Bourdieu, P. (1977). Outline of a Theory of Practice, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Braemer, F. (1984). Prospections archéologiques dans le Hawran (Syrie). Syria 61: 219–250.
Brandl, B. (1984). The engraved Tridacna-shell discs. Anatolian Studies 34: 15–41
Brown, S. (2014). Iron in the Iron Age: The life-cycle of agricultural implements from Tell en-Naṣbeh. In Brody, A. J. and Zorn, J. R. (eds.), As for me, I will dwell at Mizpah…”: The Tell en-Nasbeh Excavations after 85 Years, Gorgias, Piscataway, NJ, pp. 95–122.
Bryce, T. (2012). The World of Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Bunimovitz, S., and Lederman, Z. (2012). Iron Age Iron: From invention to innovation. In Webb, J. M., and Frankel, D. (eds.), Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology: Fifty Years On, Åströms Förlag, Uppsala, pp. 103–112.
Bunnens, G. (1997). Til Barsib under Assyrian domination: A brief account of the Melbourne University excavations at Tell Ahmar. In Parpola, S., and Whiting, R. M. (eds.), Assyria 1995, Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project, Helsinki, pp. 17–28.
Bunnens, G. (2000). Syria in the Iron Age: Problems of definition. In Bunnens, G. (ed.), Essays on Syria in the Iron Age, Peeters Press, Leuven, pp. 3–19.
Casana, J. (2007). Structural transformations in settlement systems of the northern Levant. American Journal of Archaeology 111: 195–221.
Casana, J. (2008). Mediterranean valleys revisited: Linking soil erosion, land use and climate variability in the northern Levant. Geomorphology 101: 429–442.
Casana, J., and Hermann, J. T. (2010). Settlement history and urban planning at Zincirli Höyük, southern Turkey. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 23: 55–80.
Cecchini, S. M. (2000). The textile industry in northern Syria during the Iron Age according to the evidence of the Tell Afis excavations. In Bunnens, G. (ed.), Essays on Syria in the Iron Age, Peeters Press, Leuven, pp. 211–233.
Cecchini, S. M., and Mazzoni, S. (1998). Tell Afis (Siria): The 1988–1992 Excavations on the Acropolis, Edizioni ETS, Pisa.
Christen, J. A., and Litton, C. D. (1995). A Bayesian approach to wiggle-matching. Journal of Archaeological Science 22: 719–725.
Clark, D. (1997). Field B: The western defense system. In Herr, L., Geraty, L., LaBianca, Ø., and Younker, R. (eds.), Madaba Plains Project 3: The 1989 Season at Tell el-‘Umeiri and Vicinity and Subsequent Studies, Andrews University Press, Berrien Spring, MI, pp. 53–98.
Clark, D. (2000). Field B: The western defense system. In Herr, L., Clark, D., Geraty, L., Younker, R., and LaBianca, Ø. (eds.), Madaba Plains Project 4: The 1992 Season at Tall al-‘Umayri and Subsequent Studies, Andrews University Press, Berrien Springs, MI, pp. 59–94.
Clark, D. (2002). Field B: The western defense system. In Herr, L., Clark, D., Geraty, L., Younker, R., and LaBianca, Ø. (eds.), Madaba Plains Project 5: The 1994 Season at Tall al-‘Umayri and Subsequent Studies, Andrews University Press, Berrien Springs, pp. 48–116.
Clarke, E. D. (1817). Travels in Various Countries of Europe, Asia, and Africa, Cadell and Davies, London.
Cline, E. (2014). 1177 BC: The Year Civilization Collapsed, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
Conder, C. R., and Kitchner, H. H. (1881). The Survey of Western Palestine, Palestine Exploration Fund, London.
Conder, C. R., and Warren, C. (1884). The Survey of Western Palestine: Memoirs of the Topography, Orography, Hydrography, and Archaeology, Vol. 5, Jerusalem, Palestine Exploration Fund, London.
Coote, R. (1990). Early Israel: A New Horizon, Fortress Press, Minneapolis.
Coote, R., and Whitelam, K. (1987). The Emergence of Early Israel in Historical Perspective, Almond Press, Sheffield.
Corbett, E. (2014). Competitive Archaeology in Jordan: Narrating Identity from the Ottomans to the Hashemites, University of Texas Press, Austin.
Cordova, C. (2007). Millennial Landscape Change in Jordan: Geoarchaeology and Cultural Ecology, University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
Costin, C. (1991). Craft specialization: Issues in defining, documenting, and explaining the organization of production. In Schiffer, M. (ed.), Archaeological Method and Theory, vol. 3, University of Arizona Press, Tucson, pp. 1–56.
Crawford, P. L. (1999). Botanical remains. In Stone, E. C., and Zimansky, P. (eds.), The Iron Age Settlement at ‘Ain Dara, Syria: Survey and Soundings, BAR International Series 786, Archaeopress, Oxford, pp. 113–121.
Curtis, J., and Reade, J. E. (eds.) (1995). Art and Empire: Treasures from Assyria in the British Museum, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
Darby, E. (2014). Interpreting Judean Pillar Figurines: Gender and Empire in Judean Apotropaic Ritual, Mohr Siebeck, Tübingen.
Da Riva, R. (2010). A lion in the cedar forest: International politics and pictorial self-representations of Nebuchadnezzar I (605-562 BC). In Vidal, J. (ed.), Studies on War in the Ancient Near East: Collected Essays on Military History, Ugarit Verlag, Münster, pp. 165–193.
Daviau, P. M. (2001). Family religion: Evidence for the paraphernalia of the domestic cult. In Daviau, P. M., Weavers, J. W., and Weigl, M. (eds.), The World of the Aramaeans, Vol. 2: Studies in History and Archaeology in Honour of Paul-Eugène Dion, Sheffield Academic Press, Sheffield, pp. 199–229.
Daviau, P. M, and Steiner, M. (2000). A Moabite sanctuary at Khirbat al-Mudayna. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 320: 1–21.
Davies, P. R. (1992). In Search of “Ancient Israel,” Journal for the Society of the Old Testament Press, Sheffield.
Dearman, J. A. (ed.) (1989). Studies in the Mesha Inscription and Moab, Scholars Press, Atlanta, GA.
Dever, W. G. (1974). Archaeology and Biblical Studies: Retrospects and Prospects, Seabury-Western Theological Seminary, Evanston, IL.
Dever, W. G. (1981). The impact of the ‘New Archaeology’ on Syro-Palestinian archaeology. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 242: 15–29.
Dever, W. G. (1997). Archaeology, urbanism, and the rise of the Israelite state. In Aufrecht, W. E., Mirau, N. A., and Gauley, S. W. (eds.), Urbanism in Antiquity: From Mesopotamia to Crete, Sheffield Academic Press, Sheffield, pp. 172–193.
Dever, W. G. (2003). Who Were the Early Israelites, and Where Did They Come From? William B. Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, MI.
Dever, W. G. (2012). The Lives of Ordinary People in Ancient Israel: When Archaeology and the Bible Intersect, Williams B. Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, MI.
Dobbs-Allsopp, F. W., Roberts, J. J., Seow, C. L., and Whitaker, R. E. (2004). Hebrew Inscriptions: Texts from the Biblical Period of the Monarchy with Concordance, Yale University Press, New Haven, CT.
Dolan, A. E. (2007). Wadi ath-Thamad Site WT-13: A Hermeneutical Approach to Moabite Religion, Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations, University of Toronto, Toronto.
Donner, H., and Röllig, W. (2002). Kanaanäische und Aramäische Inschriften, Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden.
Drake, B. L. (2012). The influence of climatic change on the Late Bronze Age collapse and the Greek Dark Ages. Journal of Archaeological Science 39: 1862–1879.
Dresch, P. (1986). The significance of the course events take in segmentary systems. American Ethnologist 13: 309–324.
Dubowski, Y., Erez, J., and Stiller, M. (2003). Isotopic paleolimnology of Lake Kinneret. Limnology and Oceanography 48: 68–78.
Dunand, M. (1937–1939). Fouilles de Byblos, Vol. 1: 1926–1932, Geuthner, Paris.
Dunand, M. (1954). Fouilles de Byblos, Vol. 2: 1933–1938, Maisonneuve, Paris.
Earle, T. K. (1997). How Chiefs Come to Power: The Political Economy in Prehistory, Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA.
Eliyahu-Behar, A., Yahalom-Mack, N., Shilstein, S., Zukerman, A., Shafer-Elliott, C., Maeir, A. M., Boaretto, E., Finkelstein, I., and Weiner, S. (2012). Iron and bronze production in Iron Age IIA Philistia: New evidence from Tell es-Safi/Gath, Israel. Journal of Archaeological Science 39: 255–267.
Emerson, T. E. (1997). Cahokia and the Archaeology of Power, University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.
Enzel, Y., Bookman (Ken Tor), R., Sharon, D., Gvirtzman, H., Dayan, U., Ziv, B., and Stein, M. (2003). Late Holocene climates of the Near East deduced from Dead Sea level variations and modern regional winter rainfall. Quarternary Research 60: 263–273.
Evans-Pritchard, E. E. (1940). The Nuer: A Description of the Modes of Livelihood and Political Institutions of a Nilotic People, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Fales, F. M., and Postgate, J. N. (1995). Imperial Administrative Records, Part II: Provincial and Military Administration, Helsinki University Press, Helsinki.
Fantalkin, A. and Tal, O. (2009). Re-discovering the Iron Age fortress at Tell Qudadi in the context of Neo-Assyrian imperialistic policies. Palestine Exploration Quarterly 141: 188–206.
Faust, A. (2000). The rural community in ancient Israel during the Iron Age II. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 317: 17–39.
Faust, A. (2006). Israel’s Ethnogensis: Settlement, Interaction, Expansion and Resistance, Equinox, London.
Faust, A. (2012). Judah in the Neo-Babylonian Period: The Archaeology of Desolation, Society of Biblical Literature, Atlanta, GA.
Feinman, G. M. (2001). Mesoamerican political complexity: The corporate-network dimension. In Haas, J. (ed.), From Leaders to Rulers, Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York, pp. 151–175.
Feinman, G. M., and Garraty, C. P. (2010). Preindustrial markets and marketing: Archaeological perspectives. Annual Review of Anthropology 39: 167–191.
Feinman, G. M., and Marcus, J. (eds.) (1998). Archaic States, School of American Research Press, Santa Fe, NM.
Feldman, M. (2006). Diplomacy by Design: Luxury Arts and an “International Style” in the Ancient Near East, 1400-1200 BCE, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Feldman, M. (2014). Communities of Style: Portable Luxury Arts, Identity, and Collective Memory in the Iron Age Levant, University of Chicago, Chicago.
Finkelstein, I. (1986). ‘Izbet Sartah: An Early Iron Age Site near Rosh Ha‘Ayin, Israel, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Finkelstein, I. (1996). Ethnicity and origin of the Iron I settlers in the highlands of Canaan: Can the real Israel stand up? The Biblical Archaeologist 59: 198–212.
Finkelstein, I. (1999). State formation in Israel and Judah: A contrast in context, a contrast in trajectory. Near Eastern Archaeology 62(1): 35–52.
Finkelstein, I., Bunimovitz, S., and Lederman, Z. (1993). Shiloh: The Archaeology of a Biblical Site, Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv.
Finkelstein, I., Lederman, Z., and Bunimovits, S. (1997). Highlands of Many Cultures: The Southern Samaria Survey: The Sites, Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv.
Finkelstein, I., and Mazar, A. (2007). The Quest for the Historical Israel: Debating Archaeology and the History of Early Israel, Society of Biblical Literature, Atlanta, GA.
Finkelstein, I., Ussishkin, D., and Cline, E. (eds.) (2013). Megiddo V: The 2004–2008 Seasons, Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake, IN.
Finkelstein, I., Ussishkin, D., and Halpern, B. (eds.) (2000). Megiddo III: The 1992–1996 Seasons, Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv.
Finkelstein, I., Ussishkin, D., and Halpern, B. (eds.) (2006). Megiddo IV: The 1998–2002 Seasons, Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv.
Flanagan, J. W. (1981). Chiefs in Israel. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 20: 47–73.
Fogelin, L. (2007). The archaeology of religious ritual. Annual Review of Anthropology 36: 55–71.
Fortin, M. (ed.) (2006). Tell Acharneh: The 1998–2004 Seasons of Excavations and Study: A Preliminary Report, Brepols, Turnhout.
Frey, C. J. and Marean, C. W. (1999). Mammal remains. In Stone, E. C., and Zimansky, P. (eds.), The Iron Age Settlement at ‘Ain Dara, Syria: Survey and Soundings, BAR International Series 786, Archaeopress, Oxford, pp. 123–137.
Frick, F. S. (1985). The Formation of the State in Ancient Israel: A Survey of Models and Theories, Almond Press, Sheffield.
Friend, G. (1998). Tell Taannek 1963–1968: III/2, The Loom Weights, Birzeit University, Birzeit.
Fugmann, E. (1958). Hama. Fouilles et recherches 1931–1938: L’architecture des périodes pré-hellénistiques, vol. II.1, Fondation Carlsberg, Copenhagen.
Gal, Z. (1992). Lower Galilee during the Iron Age, Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake, IN.
Gansell, A. R., van de Meent, J.-W., Zairis, S., and Wiggins, C. (2014). Stylistic clusters and the Syrian/south Syrian tradition of first-millennium BCE Levantine ivory carving: A machine learning approach. Journal of Archaeological Science 44: 194–205.
Garfinkel, Y., and Ganor, S. (2009). Khirbet Qeiyafa, Vol. 1: Excavation Report 2007–2008, Israel Exploration Society, Jerusalem.
Garr, W. R., (1985). Dialect Geography of Syria-Palestine, 1000–586 BC, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia.
Garraty, C., and Stark, B. L. (eds.) (2010). Archaeological Approaches to Market Exchange in Ancient Societies, University Press of Colorado, Boulder.
Gilboa, A., and Sharon, I. (2008). Between the Carmel and the sea: Tel Dor’s Iron Age reconsidered. Near Eastern Archaeology 71: 146–170.
Gilibert, A. (2011). Syro-Hittite Monumental Art and the Archaeology of Performance: The Stone Reliefs at Carchemish and Zincirli in the Earlier First Millennium BCE, De Gruyter, Berlin.
Gillot, L. (2010). Towards a socio-political history of archaeology in the Middle East: The development of archaeological practice and its impacts on local communities in Syria. Bulletin of the History of Archaeology 20(1): 4–16.
Gitin, S. (1997). The Neo-Assyrian empire and its western periphery: The Levant, with a focus on Philistine Ekron. In Parpola, S., and Whiting, R. M. (eds.), Assyria 1995: Proceedings of the 10th Anniversary Symposium of the Neo-Assyrian Corpus Project, Helsinki, pp. 77–103.
Gitin, S. (ed.) (2015). The Ancient Pottery of Israel and Its Neighbors from the Iron Age through the Hellenistic Period. Israel Exploration Society, W. F. Albright Institute of Archaeological Research, Israel Antiquities Authority, American Schools of Oriental Research, Jerusalem.
Gitin, S., Mazar, A., and Stern, E. (eds.) (1998). Mediterranean Peoples in Transition: Thirteenth to Early Tenth Centuries BCE, Israel Exploration Society, Jerusalem.
Glueck, N. (1940). The Other Side of the Jordan, American Schools of Oriental Research, New Haven, CT.
Golani, A. (2013). Jewelry from the Iron Age II Levant, Academic Press, Fribourg.
Gottwald, N. (1983). Early Israel and the Canaanite socio-economic system. In Freedman, D. N., and Graf, D. F. (eds.), Palestine in Transition: The Emergence of Ancient Israel, Almond Press, Sheffield, pp. 25–37.
Grayson, A. K., and Novotny, J. R. (2012). The Royal Inscriptions of Sennacherib, King of Assyria (704–681 BC), Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake, IN.
Haines, R. C. (1970). Excavations in the Plain of Antioch, Vol. II: The Structural Remains of the Later Phases: Chatal Hüyük, Tell al-Judaidah, and Tell Tayinat, Oriental Institute, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Hallo, W. W., and Younger, K. L. (eds.) (1997–2002). The Context of Scripture, Vols. 1–3, Brill, Leiden.
Harmanşah, Ö. (2013). Cities and the Shaping of Memory in the Ancient Near East, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Harrison, T. (2009a). Neo-Hittites in the “Land of Palistin:” Renewed investigations at Tell Ta‘yinat on the Plain of Antioch. Near Eastern Archaeology 72: 174–189.
Harrison, T. (2009b). Lifting the veil on a “Dark Age”: Ta‘yinat and the North Orontes Valley during the Early Iron Age. In Schloen, J. D. (ed.), Exploring the Longue Durée: Essays in Honor of Lawrence E. Stager, Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake, IN, pp. 171–184
Harrison, T., and Esse, D. L. (2004). Megiddo 3: Final Report on the Stratum VI Excavations, Oriental Institute, University of Chicago, Chicago.
Hawkins, J. D. (2000). Corpus of Hieroglyphic Luwian Inscriptions, De Gruyter, Berlin.
Herr, L. G. (1997). The Iron Age II period: Emerging nations. The Biblical Archaeologist 60: 114–151, 154–183.
Herr, L., and Najjar, M. (2008). The Iron Age. In Adams, R. B. (ed.), Jordan: An Archaeological Reader, Equinox, London, pp. 311–334.
Herrmann, G. (2005). Naming, defining, explaining: A view from Nimrud. In Suter, C. E., and Uehlinger, C. (eds.), Crafts and Images in Contact: Studies on Eastern Mediterranean Art of the First Millennium BCE, Academic Press, Fribourg, pp. 11–21.
Herzog, Z. (1984). Beer-Sheba II: The Early Iron Age Settlements, Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv.
Herzog, Z. (1992). Settlement and fortification planning in the Iron Age. In Kempinkski, A., and Reich, R. (eds.), The Architecture of Ancient Israel: From the Prehistoric to the Persian Periods, Israel Exploration Society, Jerusalem, pp. 231–274.
Hesse, B. (1986). Animal use at Tel Miqne-Ekron in the Bronze and Iron Age. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 264: 17–27.
Hesse, B., and Wapnish, P. (1997). Can pig remains be used for ethnic diagnosis in the ancient Near East? In Silberman, N. A., and Small, D. B. (eds.), The Archaeology of Israel: Constructing the Past, Interpreting the Present, Sheffield Academic Press, Sheffield, pp. 238–270.
Higginbotham, C. R. (2000). Egyptianization and Elite Emulation in Ramesside Palestine: Governance and Accommodation on the Imperial Periphery, Brill, Leiden.
Hirth, K, and Pillsbury, J. (eds.) (2013). Merchants, Markets, and Exchange in the Pre-Columbian World, Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, DC.
Hoffmeier, J. K., and Millard, A. (eds.) (2004). The Future of Biblical Archaeology: Reassessing Methodologies and Assumptions, Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, MI.
Hoftijzer, J., and Van der Kooij, G. (eds). (1976). Aramaic Texts from Deir ‘Alla, Brill, Leiden.
Hogarth, D. G. (1914). Carchemish: Report on the Excavations at Djerabis, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Holladay, J. S. (1987). Religion in Israel and Judah under the monarchy: An explicitly archaeological approach. In Miller, P. D., Hanson, P. D., and McBride, S. D. (eds.), Ancient Israelite Religion: Essays in Honor of Frank Moore Cross, Fortress Press, Philadelphia, pp. 249–299.
Holladay, J. S. (1995). The Kingdoms of Israel and Judah: Political and economic centralization in the Iron II A-B (ca. 1000–750 BCE). In Levy, T. E. (ed.), The Archaeology of Society in the Holy Land, Facts on File, New York, pp. 368–398.
Holladay, J. S. (2006). Hezekiah’s tribute, long-distance trade, and the wealth of nations, ca. 1000–600 BC: A new perspective. In Gitin, S., Wright, J. E., and Dessel, J. P. (eds.), Confronting the Past: Archaeological and Historical Essays on Ancient Israel in Honor of William G. Dever, Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake, IN, pp. 309–331.
Hopkins, D. C. (1985). The Highlands of Canaan: Agricultural Life in the Early Iron Age, Almond Press, New York.
Horwitz, L., Lev-Tov, J., Chadwick, J., Wimmer, S., and Maeir, A. (2006). Working bones: A unique Iron Age IIA bone workshop from Tell es-Safi/Gath. Near Eastern Archaeology 66: 169–173.
Hunt, E. (1982). Holy Land Pilgrimage in the Later Roman Empire, AD 312–460, Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Inomata T. 2006. Plazas, performers, and spectators. Current Anthropology 47: 805–842.
Issar, A. S., and Zohar, M. (2004). Climate Change: Environment and Civilization in the Middle East, Springer, Berlin.
Iwasaki, T., Wakita, S., Ishida, K., and Wada, H. (eds.) (2009). Tell Mastuma: An Iron Age Settlement in Northwest Syria, Ancient Orient Museum, Tokyo.
Janeway, B. (2006–2007). The nature and extent of Aegean contact at Tell Ta‘yinat and vicinity in the Early Iron Age: Evidence of the Sea Peoples? Scripta Mediterranea 27–28: 123–146.
Ji, C.-H. (1997). A note on the Iron Age four-room house in Palestine. Orientalia 66: 387–413.
Joffe, A. H. (2002). The rise of secondary states in the Iron Age Levant. Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 45: 425–467.
Kataja, L., and Whiting, R. (1995). Grants, Decrees, and Gifts of the Neo-Assyrian Period, State Archives of Assyria, Helsinki.
Kaufman, I. T. (1966). The Samaria Ostraca: A Study in Ancient Hebrew Palaeography, Th.D. dissertation, Harvard University Divinity School, Cambridge, MA.
Kaufman, I. T. (1982). The Samaria Ostraca: An early witness to Hebrew writing. The Biblical Archaeologist 45: 229–239.
Khalifeh, I. A. (1988). Sarepta II: The Late Bronze and Iron Age Periods of Area II, X, Université Libanaise, Beirut.
Killebrew, A. E. (2005). Biblical Peoples and Ethnicity: An Archaeological Study of Egyptians, Canaanites, Philistines, and Early Israel, 1300–1100 BCE, Brill, Leiden.
Killebrew, A. E., and Lehmann, G. (2013). The Philistines and Other “Sea Peoples” in Text and Archaeology, Society of Biblical Literature, Atlanta, GA.
King, P. J. (1983). American Archaeology in the Mideast: A History of the American Schools of Oriental Research, American Schools of Oriental Research, Philadelphia.
King, P. J., and Stager, L. E. (2001). Life in Biblical Israel, Westminster John Knox Press, Louisville, KY.
Kislev, M. (1993). Food remians. In Finkelstein, I., Bunimovitz, S., and Lederman, Z. (eds.), Shiloh: The Archaeology of a Biblical Site, Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, pp. 354–361.
Klengel, H. (2000). The ‘crisis years’ and the new political system in Early Iron Age Syria: Some introductory remarks. In Bunnens, G. (ed.), Essays on Syria in the Iron Age, Peeters Press, Leuven, pp. 21–30.
Kletter, R. (1996). The Judean Pillar-Figurines and the Archaeology of Asherah, BAR International Series 636, Tempus Repartum, Oxford.
Kletter, R. (2006). Just Past? The Making of Israeli Archaeology, Equinox, London.
Kletter, R. (1998). Economic Keystones: The Weight System of the Kingdom of Judah, Sheffield Academic Press, Sheffield.
Knoppers, G. N., and McConville, J. G. (eds.) (2000). Reconsidering Israel and Judah: Recent Studies on the Deuteronomistic History, Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake, IN.
Kohlmeyer, K. (2000). Der Tempel des Wettergottes von Aleppo, Rhema, Münster.
Kuhrt, A. (2007). The Persian Empire, Routledge, London.
LaBianca, Ø. (1990). Hesban 1: Sedentarization and Nomadization, Andrews University Press, Berrien Springs, MI.
LaBianca, Ø. (1999). Excursus: Salient features of Iron Age tribal kingdoms. In Younker, R., and MacDonald, B. (eds.), Ancient Ammon, Brill, Leiden, pp. 19–29.
LaBianca, Ø., and von den Driesch, A. (eds.) (1995). Hesban 13: Faunal Remains, Andrews University Press, Berrien Springs, MI.
LaBianca, Ø. S., and Younker, R. W. (1995). The kingdoms of Ammon, Moab, and Edom: The archaeology of society in Late Bronze/Iron Age Transjordan (ca. 1400–500 BC). In Levy, T. E. (ed.), The Archaeology of Society in the Holy Land, Facts on File, New York, pp. 399–415.
Lamon, R. S., and Shipton, G. M. (1939). Megiddo I: Seasons of 1925–1934 (Strata I–V), Oriental Institute, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Langgut, D., Finkelstein, I., and Litt, T. (2013). Climate and the Late Bronze Age collapse: New evidence from the southern Levant. Tel Aviv 40: 149–175.
Langgut, D., Neumann, F. H., Stein, M., Wagner, A., Kagan, E. J., Boaretto, E., and Finkelstein, I. (2014). Dead Sea pollen record and history of human activity in the Judean Highlands (Israel) from the Intermediate Bronze into the Iron Ages (~2500–500 BCE). Palynology 38: 280–302.
Lehmann, G. (1998). Trends in the local pottery development of the Late Iron Age and Persian period in Syria and Lebanon, ca. 700 to 300 BC. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 311: 7–37.
Lehmann, G. (2013). Aegean elements in the earliest Philistine ceramic assemblage: A view from the west. In Killebrew, A. and Lehmann, G. (eds.), The Philistines and Other “Sea Peoples” in Text and Archaeology, Society of Biblical Literature, Atlanta, GA, pp. 543–561.
Leichty, E. (2011). The Royal Inscriptions of Esarhaddon, King of Assyria (680–669 BC), Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake, IN.
Lemaire, A. (1977) Inscriptions Hébraïques, Cerf, Paris.
Lemche, N. P. (1998). The Israelites in History and Tradition, Westminster John Knox Press, Louisville, KY.
Lev-Tov, J. (2000). Pigs, Philistines, and the Ancient Economy of Ekron from the Late Bronze Age to the Iron Age II, Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville.
Lev-Tov, J. (2006). The faunal remains: Animal economy in the Iron Age I. In Meehl, M. W., Dothan, T., and Gitin, S. (eds.), Tel Miqne-Ekron Excavations 1995–1996: Field INE East Slope, Iron Age I (Early Philistine Period), W. F. Albright Institute of Archaeological Research, Jerusalem, pp. 207–233.
Lev-Tov, J., Porter, B., and Routledge, B. (2011). Measuring local diversity in early Iron Age animal economies: A view from Khirbat al-Mudayna al-‘Aliya (Jordan). Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 361: 67–93.
Levy, T. E. (ed.) (2010). Historical Biblical Archaeology and the Future: The New Pragmatism, Equinox, London.
Levy, T. E., and Higham, T. (2005). The Bible and Radiocarbon Dating: Archaeology, Text and Science, Equinox, London.
Levy, T. E., Najjar, M., and Ben-Yosef, E. (eds.) (2014). New Insights into the Iron Age Archaeology of Edom, Southern Jordan, Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press, Los Angeles.
Levy, T. E., Smith, N. G., Najjar, M., DeFanti, T. A., Kuester, F., and Lin, A. Y. (2012). Cyber-Archaeology in the Holy Land: The Future of the Past, California Institute for Telecommunications and Information Technology (Calit2), San Diego.
Limmer, A. (2007). The Social Functions and Ritual Significance of Jewelry in the Iron Age II Southern Levant, Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Near Eastern Studies, University of Arizona, Tucson.
Lipinski, E. (2000). The Aramaeans: Their Ancient History, Culture, Religion, Peeters Press, Leuven.
Lipschits, O. (2005). The Fall and Rise of Jerusalem: Judah under Babylonian Rule, Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake, IN.
Lipschits, O., and Blenkinsopp, J. (2003). Judah and the Judeans in the Neo-Babylonian Period, Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake, IN.
Lipschits, O., and Oeming, M. (2006). Judah and the Judeans in the Persian Period, Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake, IN.
Lipschits, O., Sergi, O., and Koch, I. (2010). Royal Judahite jar handles: Reconsidering the chronology of the lmlk stamp impressions. Tel Aviv 37: 3–32.
Loud, G. (1948). Megiddo II: Seasons of 1935–1939, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Luschan, F. von, Schrader, E., Sachau, E., Humann, C., Koldewey, R., and Gustav, J. (1893–1943). Ausgrabungen in Sendschirli, Vols. 1–5, W. Spemann, Georg Reimer, de Gruyter, Berlin.
MacDonald, B., and Younker, R. (eds.) (1999). Ancient Ammon, Brill, Leiden.
Magee, P. (2012). The foundations of antiquities departments. In Potts, D. T. (ed.), A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East, Vol. 1, Wiley-Blackwell, Malden, MA, pp. 70–86.
Marfoe, L. (1979). The integrative transformation: Patterns of sociopolitical organization in southern Syria. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 234: 1–42.
Markoe, G. (1985). Phoenician Bronze and Silver Bowls from Cyprus and the Mediterranean, University of California Press, Berkeley.
Markoe, G. (2000). Phoenicians, University of California Press, Berkeley.
Marquet-Krause, J. (1949). Les Fouilles de ‘Ay (et-Tell), 1932-35, Geuthner, Paris.
Master, D. (2014). Economy and exchange in the Iron Age kingdoms of the southern Levant. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 372: 81–97.
Matthiae, P. (1977). Ebla: An Empire Rediscovered, Hodder and Stoughton, London.
Mazar, A. (1982). The ‘bull site’: An Iron I open cult place. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 247: 27–42.
Mazzoni, S. (1998). The Italian Excavations of Tell Afis (Syria): From Chiefdom to Aramaean State, Edizioni ETS, Pisa.
Mazzoni, S. (1990). Tell Afis and the chronology of Iron Age Syria. Les Annales Archéologiques Arabes Syriennes 40: 76–92.
Mazzoni, S. (1995). Settlement pattern and new urbanization in Syria at the time of the Assyrian conquest. In Liverani, M. (ed.), Neo-Assyrian Geography, Università di Roma, Rome, pp. 181–191.
Mazzoni, S. (2000). Syria and the periodization of the Iron Age: A cross-cultural perspective. In Bunnens, G. (ed.), Essays on Syria in the Iron Age, Peeters Press, Leuven, pp. 31–59.
McGeough, K. (2007). Exchange Relationships at Ugarit, Peters Press, Leuven.
McNutt, P. (1990). The Forging of Israel: Iron Technology, Symbolism and Tradition in Ancient Society, Almond Press, Sheffield.
Meehl, M. W., Dothan, T., and Gitin, S. (eds.) (2006). Tel Miqne-Ekron Excavations 1995–1996: Field INE East Slope, Iron Age I (Early Philistine Period), W. F. Albright Institute of Archaeological Research, Jerusalem.
Mendenhall, G. (1976). Social organization in early Israel. In Cross, F. M., Lemke, W. E., and Miller, P. D. (eds.), Magnalia Dei: The Mighty Acts of God: Essays on the Bible and Archaeology in Memory of G. Ernest Wright, Doubleday, Garden City, NJ, pp. 132–151.
Mendenhall, G. (1983). Ancient Israel’s hyphenated history. In Freedman, D. N., and Graf, D. F. (eds.), Palestine in Transition: The Emergence of Ancient Israel, Almond Press, Sheffield, pp. 91–102.
Meshel, Z. (2012). Kuntillet ‘Ajrud (Ḥorvat Teman): An Iron Age II Religious Site on the Judah-Sinai Border, Israel Exploration Society, Jerusalem.
Meyers, C. (1997). The family in early Israel. In Perdue, L. G., Blenkinsopp, J., Collins, J. J., and Meyers, C. (eds.), Families in Ancient Israel, Westminster John Knox Press, Louisville, KY, pp. 1–47.
Millard, A. (1995). The knowledge of writing in Iron Age Palestine. Tyndale Bulletin 46: 207–217.
Miller, R. D. (2005). Chieftains of the Highland Clans: A History of Israel in the Twelfth and Eleventh Centuries BC, Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, MI.
Moorey, P. R. (1991). A Century of Biblical Archaeology, Westminster/John Knox Press, Louisville, KY.
Morris, E. F. (2005). The Architecture of Imperialism: Military Bases and the Evolution of Foreign Policy in Egypt’s New Kingdom, Brill, Leiden.
Morrison, K. D. (1994). The intensification of production: Archaeological approaches. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 1: 111–159.
Moscrop, J. J. (2000). Measuring Jerusalem: The Palestine Exploration Fund and British Interests in the Holy Land, Leicester University Press, London.
Mountjoy, P. A. (2013). The Mycenaean IIIc pottery at Tel Miqne-Ekron. In Killebrew, A., and Lehmann, G. (eds.), The Philistines and Other ‘Sea Peoples’ in Text and Archaeology, Society of Biblical Literature, Atlanta, GA, pp. 53–75.
Na‘aman, N. (1986). Hezekiah’s fortified cities and the “LMLK” stamps. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 261: 5–21.
Nakassis, D., Parkinson, W. A., and Galaty, M. L. (2011). Redistributive economies from a theoretical and cross-cultural perspective. American Journal of Archaeology 115: 177–184.
Nakhai, B. A. (2001). Archaeology and the Religions of Canaan and Israel, American Schools of Oriental Research, Boston, MA.
Naveh, J. (1960) A Hebrew letter from the seventh century, BC. Israel Exploration Journal 10: 129–139.
Naveh, J. (1982). Early History of the Alphabet: An Introduction to West Semitic Epigraphy and Palaeography, Magnes Press, Jerusalem.
Noth, M. (1981). The Deuteronomistic History, University of Sheffield, Sheffield.
Oded, B. (1979). Mass Deportations and Deportees in the Neo-Assyrian Empire, Reichert, Wiesbaden.
Oren, E. D. (2000). The Sea Peoples and Their World: A Reassessment, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia.
Osborne, J. F. (2012). Communicating power in the Bit-Hilani palace. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 368: 29–66.
Osborne, J. F. (2013). Sovereignty and territoriality in the city-state: A case-study from the Amuq Valley, Turkey. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 32: 774–790.
Pardee, D. (2002a). The Meṣad Ḥashavyahu (Yavneh Yam) ostracon. In Hallo, W., and Younger, K. L. (eds.), The Context of Scripture, Vol. 3: Archival Documents from the Biblical World, Brill, Leiden, pp. 77–78.
Pardee, D. (2002b). Lachish ostraca. In Hallo, W., and Younger, K. L. (eds.), The Context of Scripture, Vol. 3: Archival Documents from the Biblical World, Brill, Leiden, pp. 78–81.
Payne, A. (2012) Iron Age Hieroglyphic Luwian Inscriptions, Society of Biblical Literature, Atlanta, GA.
Peters, E. L. (1960). The proliferation of segments in the lineage of the Bedouin of Cyrenaica (Libya). Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 90: 29–53.
Petrie, W. F. (1891). Tell el-Hesy (Lachish), Palestine Exploration Fund, London.
Porter, B. W. (2004). Authority, polity, and tenuous elites in Iron Age Edom (Jordan). Oxford Journal of Archaeology 23: 373–395.
Porter, B. W. (2013). Complex Communities: The Archaeology of Early Iron Age West-Central Jordan, University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
Porter, B., Routledge, B., Simmons, E., and Lev-Tov, J. (2014). Extensification in a Mediterranean semi-arid marginal zone: An archaeological case study from Early Iron Age Jordan’s Eastern Karak Plateau. Journal of Arid Environments 104: 132–148.
Press, M. (2012). Ashkelon 4: The Iron Age Figurines of Ashkelon and Philistia, Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake, IN.
Preucel, R. W., and Mrozowski, S. A. (2010) The new pragmatism. In Preucel, R. W., and Mrozowski, S. A. (eds.), Contemporary Archaeology in Theory: The New Pragmatism, Wiley-Blackwell, Chichester, pp. 3–49.
Pritchard, J. B. (ed.) (1969). Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
Pritchard, J. B. (1975). Sarepta: A Preliminary Report on the Iron Age, University Museum, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.
Pruss, A. (2010). Die Amuq-Terrakotten: Untersuchungen zu den Terrakotta-Figuren des 2. und 1. Jahrtausends v. Chr. aus den Grabungen des Oriental Institute Chicago in der Amuq-Ebene, Brepols, Turnhout, Belgium.
Pucci, M. (2008). Functional Analysis of Space in Syro-Hittite Architecture, BAR International Series 1738, Archaeopress, Oxford.
Ramsey, C. B., Van der Plicht, J., and Weninger, B. (2001). ‘Wiggle matching’ radiocarbon dates. Radiocarbon 43: 381–389.
Reese, D., and Sease, C. (2004). Additional unpublished engraved Tridacna and Anadara shells. Journal of Near Eastern Studies 63: 29–41.
Reisner, G. A. (n.d.). Israelite Ostraca from Samaria. Unpublished report of the Harvard University Palastinian [sic] Expedition, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.
Renan, E. (1864). Mission de Phénicie, Imprimerie impérial, Paris.
Riis, P. (1948). Hama: Fouilles et recherches de la Fondation Carlsberg 1931–1938, Vol. III: Les cimitières à cremation, Gyldendalske Boghandel, Copenhagen.
Riis, P. J., and Buhl, M.-L. (1990). Hama: Les objets de la Période Dite Syro-Hittite (Âge du Fer), Vol. II.2, Fondation Carlsberg, Copenhagen.
Robinson, E. (1841). Biblical Researches in Palestine, Mount Sinai, and Arabia Petraea, Crocker and Brewster, Boston, MA.
Rollston, C. (2003). Non-provenanced epigraphs I: Pillaged antiquities, Northwest Semitic forgeries, and protocols for laboratory tests. Maarav 10: 135–193.
Rollston, C. (2004). Non-provenanced epigraphs II: The status of non-provenanced epigraphs within the broader corpus of Northwest Semitic. Maarav 11: 57–79.
Rollston, C. (2010). Writing and Literacy in the World of Ancient Israel: Epigraphic Evidence from the Iron Age, Society of Biblical Literature, Atlanta, GA.
Rosen, A. M. (2007). Civilizing Climate: Social Responses to Climate Change in the Ancient Near East, AltaMira, Lanham, MD.
Routledge, B. (1997). Mesopotamian “influence” in Iron Age Jordan: Issues of power, identity, and value. Bulletin of the Canadian Society for Mesopotamian Studies 32: 33–41.
Routledge, B. (2000). Seeing through walls: Interpreting Iron Age I architecture at Khirbat al-Mudayna al-‘Aliya. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 319: 37–70.
Routledge, B. (2004). Moab in the Iron Age: Hegemony, Polity, Archaeology, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia.
Routledge, B (2014). Archaeology and State Theory: Subjects and Objects of Power, Bloomsbury, New York.
Russell, J. M. (1999). The Writing on the Wall: Studies in the Architectural Context of Late Assyrian Palace Inscriptions, Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake, IN.
Sader, H. (2000). The Aramaean kingdoms of Syria: Origin and formation processes. In Bunnens, G. (ed.), Essays on Syria in the Iron Age, Peeters Press, Leuven, pp. 61–76.
Sader, H. (2010). The Aramaeans of Syria: Some consideration on their origin and material culture. In Halpern, B., and Lemaire, A. (eds.), The Books of Kings: Sources, Compositions, Historiography and Reception, Brill, Leiden, pp. 273–300.
Sanders, S. (2009). The Invention of Hebrew, University of Illinois Press, Urbana.
Sasson, A. (2010). Animal Husbandry in Ancient Israel: A Zooarchaeological Perspective on Livestock Exploitation, Herd Management and Economic Strategies, Equinox, London.
Schilman, B., Ayalon, A., Bar-Matthews, M., Almogi-Labin, A., and Luz, B. (2001). Global climate instability reflected by Eastern Mediterranean marine records during the Late Holocene. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 176: 157–176.
Schilman, B., Ayalon, A., Bar-Matthews, M., Kagan, E. J., and Almogi-Labin, A. (2002). Sea-land paleoclimate correlation in the Eastern Mediterranean region during the Late Holocene. Israel Journal of Earth Sciences 51: 181–190.
Schloen, J. D. (2001). The House of the Father as Fact and Symbol: Patrimonialism in Ugarit and the Ancient Near East, Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake, IN.
Schloen, J. D., and Fink, A. S. (2009). Searching for ancient Sam‘al: New excavations at Zincirli in Turkey. Near Eastern Archaeology 72: 203–219.
Schniedewind, W. M. (2000). Sociolinguistic reflections on the letter of a ‘literate’ soldier (Lachish 3). Zeitschrift für Althbraistik 13: 157–167.
Schniedewind, W. M. (2004). How the Bible Became a Book: The Textualization of Ancient Israel, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Schniedewind, W. M. (2013). A Social History of Hebrew: Its Origins through the Rabbinic Period, Yale University Press, New Haven, CT.
Sinopoli, C. M. (1994). The archaeology of empires. Annual Review of Anthropology 23: 159–180.
Smith, A. T. (2003). The Political Landscape: Constellations of Authority in Early Complex Polities, University of California Press, Berkeley.
Stager, L. (1976). Farming the Judean Desert during the Iron Age. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 221: 145–158.
Stager, L. (1985). The archaeology of the family in ancient Israel. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 260: 1–35.
Stager, L. (1995). The impact of the Sea Peoples (1185–1050 BCE). In Levy, T. E. (ed.), The Archaeology of Society in the Holy Land, Facts on File, New York, pp. 332–348.
Stager, L. E., Schloen, J. D., and Master, D. M. (eds.) (2008). Ashkelon 1: Introduction and Overview (1985–2006), Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake, IN.
Stager, L. E., Schloen, J. D., and Master, D. M. (eds.) (2011). Ashkelon 3: The Seventh Century BC, Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake, IN.
Stern, E. (2001). Archaeology of the Land of the Bible: The Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian Periods (732–332 BC), Doubleday, New York.
Steiner, M., and Killebrew, A. (2014). The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of the Levant, c. 8000–332 BCE, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Suriano, M. J. (2014a). Historical geography of the ancient Levant. In Steiner, M. L., and Killebrew, A. E. (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of the Levant, Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 9–23.
Suriano, M. J. (2014b). The historicality of the king: An exercise in reading royal inscriptions from the ancient Levant. Journal of Ancient Near Eastern History 1: 95–118.
Tadmor, H., and Yamada, S. (2011). The Royal Inscriptions of Tiglath-Pileser III (744–727 BC) and Shalmaneser V (726–722 BC), Kings of Assyria, Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake, IN.
Tappy, R. E. (2001). The Archaeology of Israelite Samaria, Volume II: The Eighth Century BCE, Scholars Press, Atlanta, GA.
Thalmann, J.-P. (2010). Tell Arqa: A prosperous city during the Bronze Age. Near Eastern Archaeology 73: 86–101.
Thompson, T. L. (1992). Early History of the Israelite People from the Written and Archaeological Sources, Brill, Leiden.
Thureau-Dangin, F., and Dunand, M. (1936). Til-Barsib, Librairie Orientaliste Paul Geuthner, Paris.
Tigay, J. H. (1986). You Shall Have No Other Gods: Israelite Religion in the Light of Hebrew Inscriptions, Scholars Press, Atlanta, GA.
Torczyner, H. (1938). The Lacish Letters, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Trigger, B. G. (1989). A History of Archaeological Thought, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Tufnell, O. (1953). Lachish III: The Iron Age, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Ussishkin, D. (1982). The Conquest of Lachish by Sennacherib, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv.
Ussishkin, D. (1983). Excavations at Tel Lachish: 1978–1983: Second Preliminary Report. Tel Aviv 10: 97–175.
Ussishkin, D. (1989). Schumacher’s shrine in Building 338 at Megiddo. Israel Exploration Journal 39(3/4): 148–172.
Ussishkin, D., Bachi, G., Barkay, G., and Bar-Yosef Mayer, D. (2004). The Renewed Archaeological Excavations at Lachish (1973-1994), Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv.
Van der Plicht, J., and Bruins, H. J. (2001). Radiocarbon dating in Near-Eastern contexts: Confusion and quality control. Radiocarbon 43: 1155–1166.
Van der Steen, E. J. (2004). Tribes and Territories in Transition: The Central East Jordan Valley in the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age: A Study of the Sources, Peeters Press, Leuven.
Vieweger, D., and Häser, J. (2007). Tall Zira‘a: Five thousand years of Palestinian history on a single-settlement mound. Near Eastern Archaeology 70: 147–167.
Wachter-Sarkady, C. (1998). Archaeobotanical Investigations. In Cecchini, S. M., and Mazzoni, S. (eds.), Tell Afis (Siria): The 1988–1992 Excavations on the Acropolis, Edizioni ETS, Pisa, pp. 451–480.
Wakita, S., Wada, H., and Nishiyama, S. (2000). Tell Mastuma: Change in settlement plans and historical context during the first quarter of the first millennium BC. In Bunnens, G. (ed.), Essays on Syria in the Iron Age, Peeters Press, Leuven, pp. 537–557.
Waldbaum, J. (1978). From Bronze to Iron: The Transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age in the Eastern Mediterranean, P. Aström Press, Göteborg.
Weber, M. (1968). Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretive Sociology, Bedminster Press, New York.
Weinstein, J. (1982). The Egyptian empire in Palestine: A reassessment. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 241: 1–28.
Wilkins, B. (1992). I Resti Faunistici di Tell Afis (Scavi 1987). In Cecchini, S. M., and Mazzoni, S. (eds.), Tell Afis (Siria): The 1988–1992 Excavations on the Acropolis, Edizioni ETS, Pisa, pp. 433–450.
Wilkins, B. (1998). The faunal remains. In Mazzoni, S. (ed.), Tell Afis e L’Età del Ferro, Giardini Editori e Stampatori, Pisa, pp. 197–213.
Willey, G. R., and Sabloff, J. L. (1993). A History of American Archaeology, 3rd ed., W. H. Freeman, New York.
Winter, I. J. (1976). Phoenician and N. Syrian ivory carving in historical perspective: Questions of style and distribution. Iraq 38: 1–22.
Winter, I. (2005). Establishing group boundaries: Toward methodological refinement in the determination of sets as a prior condition to the analysis of cultural contact and/or innovation in 1st millennium BCE ivory carving. In Suter, C. E., and Uehlinger, C. (eds.), Crafts and Images in Contact: Studies on Eastern Mediterranean Art of the First Millennium BCE, Academic Press, Fribourg, pp. 23–42.
Wolf, E. (1997). Europe and the People without History, University of California Press, Berkeley.
Woolley, C. L. (1921). Carchemish. Report on the Excavations at Jerablus on behalf of the British Museum, Part 2: The Town Defences, British Museum, London.
Woolley, C. L., and Barnett, R. (1952). Carchemish: Report on the Excavations at Jerablus on Behalf of the British Museum, Part 3: The Excavations in the Inner Town, British Museum, London.
Woolley, C. L., and Lawrence, T. E. (1936). The Wilderness of Zin, Scribner, New York.
Wright, G. E. (1961). The archaeology of Palestine. In Wright, G. E. (ed.), The Bible and the Ancient Near East: Essays in Honor of William Foxwell Albright, Doubleday, Garden City, NJ, pp. 73–112.
Wright, G. E. (1975). The “New” Archaeology: An address prepared to be given at Idalion, Summer, 1974. The Biblical Archaeologist 38: 104–115.
Yadin, Y., Aharoni, Y., Amiran, R., Dothan, T., Dunayevsky, I., and Perrot, J. (1960). Hazor II: An Account of the Second Season of Excavations, 1956, Hebrew University, Jerusalem.
Yadin, Y., Aharoni, Y., Amiran, R., Ben-Tor, A., Dothan, M., Dothan, T., Dunayevsky, I., Geva, S., and Stern, E. (1989). Hazor III–IV: An Account of the Third and Fourth Seasons of Excavation, 1957–1958, Israel Exploration Society, Jerusalem.
Yamada, S. (2000). The Construction of the Assyrian Empire: A Historical Study of the Inscriptions of Shalmaneser III (895–824 BC) Relating to his Campaigns to the West, Brill, Leiden.
Yasur-Landau, A. (2010). The Philistines and Aegean Migration at the End of the Late Bronze Age, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Yoffee, N. (2005). Myths of the Archaic State: Evolution of the Earliest Cities, States, and Civilizations, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Younger, K.L. (1990). Ancient Conquest Accounts: A Study in Ancient Near Eastern and Biblical History Writing, Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Press, Sheffield.
Younker, R. W. (1999). The emergence of the Ammonites. In Macdonald, B., and Younker, R. (eds.), Ancient Ammon, Brill, Leiden, pp. 189–218.
Zevit, Z. (2001). The Religions of Ancient Israel: A Synthesis of Parallactic Approaches, Continuum, New York.
Zimmerle, W. G. (2014). Aromatics of All Kinds: Cuboid Incense Burners in the Ancient Near East from the Late Third to the Late First Millennia BC, Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.
Zorn, J. R. (2003). Tell en-Nasbeh and the problem of the material culture of the 6th century. In Lipschits, O., and Blenkinsopp, J. (eds.), Judah and the Judeans in the Neo-Babylonian Period, Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake, IN, pp. 413–447.
Zorn, J. R. (2014). The Levant during the Babylonian period. In Steiner, M., and Killebrew, A. E. (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of the Levant c. 8000–332 BCE, Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 825–840.
Bibliography of Recent Literature
Baruch, U. (1990). Palynological evidence of human impact on the vegetation as recorded in Late Holocene lake sediments in Israel. In Bottema, S., Entjes-Nieborg, G., and Van Zeist, W. (eds.), Man’s Role in the Shaping of the Eastern Mediterranean Landscape, A. A. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 283–293.
Baruch, U., and Bottema, S. (1999). A new pollen diagram from Lake Hula: Vegetational, climatic, and anthropogenic implications. In Kawanabe, H., Coulter, G. W., and Roosevelt, A. C. (eds.), Ancient Lakes: Their Cultural and Biological Diversity, Kenobi, Ghent, pp. 75–86.
Battini, L. (2010). Des theories archéologiques: Le cas du Proche-Orient ancien. Syria 87: 3–19.
Beeri, R. (2008). Round oil presses of the 13th–10th centuries BCE in Palestine and their implications: Chronology, function and geographical distribution. Palestine Exploration Quarterly 140: 159–167.
Ben-Shlomo, D. (2008). The cemetery of Azor and early Iron Age burial practices. Levant 40: 29–54.
Ben-Shlomo, D. (2014). Tell Jemmeh, Philistia, and the Neo-Assyrian Empire during the Late Iron Age. Levant 46: 58–88.
Ben-Shlomo, D., Shai, I., Zukerman, A., and Maeir, A. (2008). Cooking identities: Aegean-style cooking jugs and cultural interaction in Iron Age Philistia and neighboring regions. American Journal of Archaeology 112: 225–246.
Ben-Tor, A., Zarzecki-Peleg, A., and Cohen-Amidjar, S. (eds.) (2005). Yoqne‘am II: The Iron Age and the Persian Period, Israel Exploration Society, Jerusalem.
Ben-Yosef, E., Levy, T. E., Higham, T., Najjar, M., and Tauxe, L. (2010). The beginning of Iron Age copper production in the southern Levant: New evidence from Khirbat al-Jariya, Faynan, Jordan. Antiquity 84: 724–746.
Ben-Yosef, E., Shaar, R., Tauxe, L., and Ron, H. (2012). A new chronological framework for Iron Age copper production at Timna (Israel). Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 367: 31–71.
Bienkowski, P. (ed.) (2009). Studies on Iron Age Moab and Neighbouring Areas in Honour of Michéle Daviau, Peeters Press, Leuven.
Borowski, O. (2009). Agriculture in Iron Age Israel, Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake, IN.
Borowski, O. (2013). Lahav III: The Iron Age II Cemetery at Tell Halif (Site 72), Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake, IN.
Brown, M. (2009). Ancestral veneration and the settlement history of Tell Sūkās. Palestine Exploration Quarterly 141: 138–151.
Burke, A. (2011). The Archaeology of Ritual and Religion in Ancient Israel and the Levant and the Origins of Judaism. In Insoll, T. (ed), Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of Ritual and Religion, Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 895–907.
Casana, J. (2007). Structural transformations in settlement systems of the northern Levant. American Journal of Archaeology 111: 195–221.
Cecchini, S. M., Affanni, G., and Di Michele, A. (2008). Tell Afis: The walled acropolis (Middle Bronze to Iron Age I). A work in progress. In Córdoba, J. M. (ed.), Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East, ICAANE 5, vol. 1, Ediciones Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, pp. 383–392.
Crowell, B. L. (2007). Nabonidus, as-Silaʿ, and the beginning of the end of Edom. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 348: 75–88.
Daviau, P. M. (2002). Excavations at Tall Jawa, Jordan, Vol. 2: The Iron Age Artefacts, Brill, Leiden.
Daviau, P. M. (2003). Excavations at Tall Jawa, Jordan, Vol. 1: The Iron Age Town, Brill, Leiden.
Daviau, P. M., and Graham, A. (2009). Black-slipped and burnished pottery: A special 7th-century technology in Jordan and Syria. Levant 41: 41–58.
Dornemann, R. H. (2003). State formation in Syria at the beginning of the Iron Age. In Clark, D. R., and Matthews, V. H. (eds.), 100 Years of American Archaeology in the Middle East, American Schools of Oriental Research, Boston, MA, pp. 199–214.
Doumet-Serhal, C. (ed.) (2008). Networking Patterns of the Bronze and Iron Age Levant: The Lebanon and Its Mediterranean Connections, Lebanese British Friends of the National Museum, London.
Engstrom, C. M. (2004). The Neo-Assyrians at Tell el-Hesi: A petrographic study of imitation Assyrian palace ware. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 333: 69–81.
Faust, A. (2008). Settlement and demography in seventh-century Judah and the extent and intensity of Sennacherib’s campaign. Palestine Exploration Quarterly 140(3): 168–194.
Faust, A. (2010). The archaeology of the Israelite cult: Questioning the consensus. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 360: 23–35.
Faust, A. (2011). The excavations at Tel ‘Eton (2006–2009): A preliminary report. Palestine Exploration Quarterly 143: 198–224.
Faust, A. (2013). The Shephelah in the Iron Age: A new look on the settlement of Judah. Palestine Exploration Quarterly 145: 203–219.
Finkelstein, I. (1995). Living on the Fringe: The Archaeology and History of the Negev, Sinai and Neighbouring Regions in the Bronze and Iron Ages, Sheffield Academic Press, Sheffield.
Finkelstein, I. (2014). The southern steppe of the Levant ca. 1050–750 BCE: A framework for a territorial history. Palestine Exploration Quarterly 146: 89–104.
Finkelstein, I., and Lipschits, O. (2010). Omride architecture in Moab: Jahaz and Ataroth. Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins 126: 29–42.
Finkelstein, I., and Lipschits, O. (2011). The genesis of Moab: A proposal. Levant 43: 139–152.
Finkelstein, I., and Piasetzky, E. (2006). The Iron I–IIA in the highlands and beyond: 14C anchors, pottery phases and the Shoshenq I campaign. Levant 38: 45–61.
Finkelstein, I., and Piasetzky, E. (2010). Radiocarbon dating the Iron Age in the Levant: A Bayesian model for six ceramic phases and six transitions. Antiquity 84: 374–385.
Fortin, M., and Cooper, E. (2013) “Shedding new light on the elusive Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages at Tell ‘Acharneh (Syria).” In Yener, A. (ed.), Across the Border: Late Bronze-Iron Age Relations Between Syria and Anatolia, Peeters Press, Leuven, pp. 147–172.
Grigson, C. (2012). Camels, copper and donkeys in the Early Iron Age of the southern Levant: Timna revisited. Levant 44: 82–100.
Hardin, J. W. (2010). Lahav II: Households and the Use of Domestic Space at Iron II Tell Halif, Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake, IN.
Harrison, T. P. (2007). Neo-Hittites in the North Orontes Valley: Recent investigations at Tell Ta‘yinat. Journal of the Canadian Society for Mesopotamian Studies 2: 59–68.
Harrison, T. P. (2010). The Late Bronze/Early Iron Age transition in the Northern Orontes Valley. Venturi, F. (ed.), Societies in Transition: Evolutionary Processes in the Northern Levant between Late Bronze Age II and Early Iron Age, CLUEB, Bologna, pp. 83–102.
Hawkins, R. K. (2012). The Iron Age I Structure on Mt. Ebal: Excavation and Interpretation, Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake, IN.
Kaniewski, D., Paulissen, E., van Campo, E., Weiss, H., Otto, T., Bretschneider, J., and van Lerberghe, K. (2010). Late second-early first millennium BC abrupt climate changes in coastal Syria and their possible significance for the history of the Eastern Mediterranean. Quaternary Research 74: 207–215.
Kaplan, J. (2010). The Mesha Inscription and Iron Age II water systems. Journal of Near Eastern Studies 69: 23–29.
Katz, H., and Faust, A. (2014). The chronology of the Iron Age IIA in Judah in the light of Tel ʿEton tomb C3 and other assemblages. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 371: 103–127.
Kempinski, A., and Reich, R. (eds.) (1992). The Architecture of Ancient Israel: From the Prehistoric to the Persian Periods, Israel Exploration Society, Jerusalem.
Kepinski, C., and Tenu, A. (2009). Avant-propos: Interaction entre Assyriens et Araméens. Syria 86: 7–15.
Killebrew, A. E., Goldberg, P., and Rosen, A. (2006). Deir el-Balah: A geological, archaeological, and historical reassessment of an Egyptianizing 13th and 12th century BCE center. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 343: 97–119.
Kohlmeyer, K. (2013). The temple of the storm-god of Aleppo. In Orthmann, W., al-Maqdissi, M., and Matthiae, P. (eds)., Archéologie et Histoire de la Syrie: Volume 1: Le Syrie de l’epoque néolithique à l’âge du fer, Harrassowitz Verlag, Wiesbaden, pp. 511–524.
Lehmann, G., and Killebrew, A. E. (2010). Palace 6000 at Megiddo in context: Iron Age central hall tetra-partite residencies and the “Bīt-Ḫilāni” building tradition in the Levant. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 359: 13–33
Levy, T. E., Adams, R., Najjar, M., Hauptmann, A., Anderson, J., Brandl, B., Robinson, M. A., and Higham, T. (2004). Reassessing the chronology of Biblical Edom: New excavations and 14C dates from Khirbat en-Nahas (Jordan). Antiquity 78: 865–879.
Levy, T. E., Najjar, M., and Higham, T. (2010). Ancient texts and archaeology revisited: Radiocarbon and biblical dating in the southern Levant. Antiquity 84: 834–847.
Lipinski, E. (2006). On the Skirts of Canaan in the Iron Age: Historical and Topographical Perspectives, Peeters Press, Leuven.
Lipschits, O. (2004). The rural settlement in Judah in the sixth century BCE: A rejoinder. Palestine Exploration Quarterly 136: 99–107.
Lipschits, O. (2004). Ammon in transition from vassal kingdom to Babylonian province. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 335: 37–52.
Litt, T., Ohlwein, C., Neumann, F. H., Hense, A., and Stein, M. (2012). Holocene climate variability in the Levant from the Dead Sea pollen record. Quaternary Science Reviews 49: 95–105.
London, G. (2011). Late 2nd millennium BC feasting at an ancient ceremonial centre in Jordan. Levant 43: 15–37.
Maeir, A., Greenfield, H., Lev-Tov, J., and Horwitz, L. (2009). Macro- and microscopic aspects of bone tool manufacture and technology in the Levantine Iron Age: A 9th century BCE workshop from Tell es-Safi/Gath, Israel. In Rosen, S., and Roux, V. (eds.), Techniques and People: Anthropological Perspectives on Technology in the Archaeology of the Proto-Historic and Early Historic Periods in the Southern Levant, De Boccard, Paris, pp. 41–68.
Marom, N., Mazar, A., Raban-Gerstel, N., and Bar-Oz, G. (2009). Backbone of society: Evidence for social and economic status of the Iron Age population of Tel Reḥov, Beth Shean Valley, Israel. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 354: 55–75.
Mazzoni, S. (ed.) (1998). Tell Afis (Siria): The 1988–1992 Excavations on the Acropolis, Edizioni ETS, Pisa.
Mazzoni, S. (2014). Tell Afis in the Iron Age: The temple on the acropolis. Near Eastern Archaeology 77: 44–52.
Mierse, W. (2012). Temples and Sanctuaries from the Early Iron Age Levant: Recovery After Collapse, Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake, IN.
Miller, R. D. (2004). Identifying earliest Israel. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 333: 55–68.
Morandi Bonacossi, D. (2009). Continuity and change in the town planning and material culture of Iron Age II and III Mishrifeh, Central Syria. Syria 86: 119–132.
Neumann, F. H., Kagan E. J., Leroy S. A., and Baruch, U. (2010). Vegetation history and climate fluctuations on a transect along the Dead Sea west shore and their impact on past societies over the last 3500 years. Journal of Arid Environments 74: 756–764.
Neumann, F. H., Kagan, E. J., Schwab, M., and Stein, M. (2007). Palynology, sedimentology and palaeoecology of the Late Holocene Dead Sea. Quaternary Science Review 26: 1476–1498.
Orthmann, W. (2013). The Neo-Hittite period in northern Syria: Stratigraphy and architecture. In Orthmann, W., al-Maqdissi, M., and Matthiae, P. (eds)., Archéologie et Histoire de la Syrie: Volume 1: Le Syrie de l’epoque néolithique à l’âge du fer, Harrassowitz Verlag, Wiesbaden, pp. 499–510.
Osborne, J. F. (2011). Secondary mortuary practice and the bench tomb: Structure and practice in Iron Age Judah. Journal of Near Eastern Studies 70: 35–53.
Pardee, D. (2009). A New Aramaic Inscription from Zincirli. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 356: 15–49.
Petit, L. P. (2009). Settlement Dynamics in the Middle Jordan Valley during Iron Age II, BAR International Series 2033, Archaeopress, Oxford.
Raban-Gerstel, N., Zohar, I., Bar-Oz, G., Sharon, I., and Gilboa, A. (2008). Early Iron Age Dor (Israel): A faunal perspective. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 349: 25–59.
Ray, P. J. (2001). Tell Hesban and Vicinity in the Iron Age, Andrews University Press, Berrien Springs, MI.
Röllig, W. (2013). History of the Neohittite and the Aramaean states and the Assyrian conquest. In Orthmann, W., al-Maqdissi, M., and Matthiae, P. (eds.), Archéologie et Histoire de la Syrie: Volume 1: Le Syrie de l’epoque néolithique à l’âge du fer, Harrassowitz Verlag, Wiesbaden, pp. 461–472.
Rosen, A. M. (1986). Environmental Change and Settlement at Tel Lachish, Israel. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 263: 55–60.
Routledge, B. (2013). On water management in the Mesha Inscription and Moab. Journal of Near Eastern Studies 72: 51–64.
Routledge, B. (2013). Household archaeology in the Levant. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 370: 207–219.
Sapir-Hen, L., and Ben-Yosef, E. (2014). The socioeconomic status of Iron Age metalworkers: Animal economy in the ‘Slaves’ Hill’, Timna, Israel. Antiquity 88: 775–790.
Schreiber, N. (2003). The Cypro-Phoenician Pottery of the Iron Age, Brill, Leiden.
Schwab, M. J., Neumann, F., Litt, T., Negendank, J., and Stein, M. (2004). Holocene palaeoecology of the Golan Heights (Near East): Investigation of lacustrine sediments from Birket Ram Crater Lake. Quaternary Science Reviews 23: 1723–1731.
Shahack-Gross, R., Boaretto, E., Cabanes, D., Katz, O., and Finkelstein, I. (2014). Subsistence economy in the Negev Highlands: The Iron Age and the Byzantine/Early Islamic period. Levant 46: 98–117.
Shahack-Gross, R., and Finkelstein, I. (2008). Subsistence practices in an arid environment: A geoarchaeological investigation in an Iron Age site, the Negev Highlands, Israel. Journal of Archaeological Science 35: 965–982.
Shai, I. (2011). Philistia and the Philistines in the Iron Age IIA. Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins 127: 119–134.
Shai, I., Ilan, D., Maier, A., and Uziel, J. (2011). The Iron Age remains at Tel Nagila. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 363: 25–43.
Smith, N. G., and Levy, T. E. (2008). The Iron Age pottery from Khirbat en-Nahas, Jordan: A preliminary study. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 352: 41–91.
Soldi, S. (2009). Aramaeans and Assyrians in north-western Syria: Material evidence from Tell Afis. Syria 86: 97–118.
Stone, E. C., and Zimansky, P. (eds.) (1999). The Iron Age Settlement at ‘Ain Dara, Syria: Survey and Soundings, BAR International Series 786, Archaeopress, Oxford.
Swinnen, I. M. (2009). The Iron Age I settlement and its residential houses at al-Lahun in Moab, Jordan. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 354: 29–53.
Thareani, Y. (2010). The spirit of Clay: “Edomite pottery” and social awareness in the Late Iron Age. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 359: 35–55
Thareani, Y. (2011). Tel ‘Aroer: The Iron Age Caravan Town and the Hellenistic-Early Roman Settlement—The Avraham Biran (1975–1982) and Rudolf Cohen (1975–1976) Excavations, Israel Exploration Society, Jerusalem.
Uziel, J. (2007). The development process of Philistine material culture: Assimilation, acculturation and everything in between. Levant 39: 165–173.
Van der Steen, E., Boertien, J., and Mulder-Hymans, N. (eds.) (2014). Exploring the Narrative: Jerusalem and Jordan in the Bronze and Iron Ages, Bloomsbury, London.
Van Zeist, W., and Bottema, S. (1982). Vegetational history of the Eastern Mediterranean and the Near East during the last 20,000 years. In Bintliff, J. F., and van Zeist, W. (eds.), Palaeoclimates, Palaeoenvironments and Human Communities in the Eastern Mediterranean Region in Later Prehistory, BAR International Series 133, British Archaeological Reports, Oxford, pp. 277–321.
Venturi, F. (2010). Cultural breakdown or evolution? The impact of changes in 12th century BC Tell Afis. In Venturi, F. (ed.), Societies in Transition: Evolutionary Processes in the Northern Levant between Late Bronze Age II and Early Iron Age, CLUEB, Bologna, pp. 1–28.
Vieweger, D., and Häser, J. (2007). Das “Gadara Region Project.” Der Tell Zera‘a in den Jahren 2005 und 2006. Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins 123: 1–27.
Vieweger, D., and Häser, J. (2010). Das “Gadara Region Project.” Der Tell Zera‘a in den Jahren 2007 bis 2009. Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins 126: 1–28.
Whincop, M. (2007). The Iron Age II at Tell Nebi Mend: Towards an explanation of ceramic regions. Levant 39: 185–212.
Whincop, M. (2009). Pots, People, and Politics: A Reconsideration of the Role of Ceramics in Reconstructions of the Iron Age Northern Levant, BAR International Series 1902, Archaeopress, Oxford.
Whincop, M. (2010). The complexity of ceramic regions in the Iron Age northern Levant: The application of correspondence analysis to Near Eastern ceramic data. Levant 42: 30–47.
Wilkinson, T. J. (2003). Archaeological Landscapes of the Near East, University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
Wilkinson, T., Peltenburg, E., McCarthy, A., Wilkinson, E. B., and Brown, M. (2007). Archaeology in the land of Carchemish: Landscape surveys in the area of Jerablus Tahtani, 2006. Levant 39: 213–247.
Yasuda, Y., Kitagawa, H., and Nakagawa, T. (2000). The earliest record of major anthropogenic deforestation in the Ghab Valley, northwest Syria: A palynological study. Quaternary International 73–74: 127–136.
Yener, K. A. (ed.) (2013). Across the Border: Late Bronze-Iron Age Relations between Syria and Anatolia, Peeters Press, Leuven.
Zukerman, A., and Ben-Shlomo, D. (2011). Mortaria as a foreign element in the material culture of the southern Levant during the 8th–7th Centuries BCE. Palestine Exploration Quarterly 143: 87–105.
Acknowledgments
I thank Aaron Brody, Erin Darby, Marian Feldman, Ronald Hendel, Larry Herr, Tina Greenfield, David Lipovitch, Kevin McGeough, Matthew Rutz, Matthew Suriano, and Martin Weber for their assistance with sources. The manuscript was greatly improved based on the comments of four referees and the editors’ feedback. Thanks to Martin Weber and Charles Morse for their assistance with this article’s preparation. All errors remain my responsibility.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Porter, B.W. Assembling the Iron Age Levant: The Archaeology of Communities, Polities, and Imperial Peripheries. J Archaeol Res 24, 373–420 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10814-016-9093-8
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10814-016-9093-8