Abstract
After almost three centuries of investigations into the question of what it means to be human and the historical processes of becoming human, archaeologists have amassed a huge volume of data on prehistoric human interactions. One of the largest data sets available is on the global distribution and exchange of materials and commodities. What still remains insufficiently understood is the precise nature of these interactions and their role in shaping the diverse cultures that make up the human family as we know it. A plethora of theoretical models combined with a multitude of methodological approaches exist to explain one important aspect of human interaction—trade—and its role and place in shaping humanity. We argue that trade parallels political, religious, and social processes as one of the most significant factors to have affected our evolution. Here we review published literature on archaeological approaches to trade, including the primitivist-modernist and substantivist-formalist-Marxist debates. We also discuss economic, historical, and ethnographic research that directly addresses the role of traders and trade in both past and contemporary societies. In keeping with the complexities of interaction between trade and other aspects of human behavior, we suggest moving away from the either/or perspective or strong identification with any particular paradigm and suggest a return to the middle through a combinational approach to the study of trade in past societies.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References cited
Abraham, M. (1988). Two Medieval Merchant Guilds of South India, Manohar Publishers, New Delhi.
Abu-Lughod, J. L. (1989). Before European Hegemony: The World System A.D. 1250–1350, Oxford University Press, New York.
Abungu, G. H. O. (1990). Communities on the River Tana, Kenya: An Archaeological Study of Relations between the Delta and the River Basin, 700–1890 A.D., Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Archaeology, Cambridge University, Cambridge, UK.
Achenbach, J. (2005). Big chill: How Toba’s eruption changed life on Earth. National Geographic. Available at http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0503/resources_who.html.
Acheson, J. M. (ed.) (1994). Anthropology and Institutional Economics, University Press of America, Lanham, MD.
Adams, R. M. (1975). The emerging place of trade in civilizational studies. In Sabloff, J. A., and Lamberg-Karlovsky, C. C. (eds.), Ancient Civilization and Trade, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, pp. 451–466.
Adams, R. M. (1992). Anthropological perspectives on ancient trade. Current Anthropology 33: 141–160.
Adams, R. M. (2001). Complexity in archaic states. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 20: 345–360.
Adams, W. Y., Dennis, P., Van Gewein, R., and Levy, S. (1978). The retreat from migrationism. Annual Review of Anthropology 7: 483–532.
Agarwal, R. S. (1982). Trade Centers and Routes in Northern India, B. R. Publishing Corporation, New Delhi.
Agiri, B. A. (1975). The Yoruba and the pre-Colonial Kola trade. Odu NS 12: 55–68.
Aglietta, M., and Orlean, A. (1982). La violence de la monnaie, PUF, Paris.
Alagoa, E. J. (1970). Long-distance trade and states in the Niger Delta. Journal of African History 11: 319–329.
Alden, J. R. (1982a). Marketplace exchange as indirect distribution: An Iranian example. In Ericson, J. E., and Earle, T. K. (eds.), Contexts For Prehistoric Exchange, Academic Press, New York, pp. 83–102.
Alden, J. R. (1982b). Trade and politics in Proto-Elamite Iran. Current Anthropology 23: 613–640.
Alexander, J., and Alexander, R. P. (1991). Protecting peasants from capitalism: The subordination of Javanese traders by the colonial state. Comparative Studies in Society and History 33: 370–394.
Algaze, G. (1989). The uruk expansion, cross-cultural exchange as a factor in early Mesopotamian civilization. Current Anthropology 30: 571–608.
Allen, J. (1985). Comments on complexity and trade: A view from Melanesia. Archaeology in Oceania 20: 49–57.
Allen, L. P. (1980). Intra-urban exchange at Teotihuacan: Evidence from mold-made figurines. In Fry, R. E. (ed.), Models and Methods in Regional Exchange, Papers No. 1, Society for American Archaeology, Washington, DC, pp. 83–94.
Allouche, A., and Al-Maqrîsî, A. I. A. (1994). Mamluk Economics: A Study and Translation of Al-Maqrîzî’s Ighãthah, University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.
Alpers, E. A. (1969). Trade, state, and society among the Yao in the nineteenth century. Journal of African History 10: 405–420.
Ambrose, S. H. (1998). Late Pleistocene human population, bottlenecks, volcanic winter, and differentiation of modern humans. Journal of Human Evolution 34: 623–651.
Ambrose, W. R. (1978). The loneliness of the long distance trader in Melanesia. Mankind 11: 326–333.
Amin, S. (1976). Unequal Development: An Essay on the Social Formation of Periphery Capitalism, Monthly Review Press, New York.
Amin, S. (1991). The ancient world system versus the modern capitalist world system. Review 14: 349–385.
Anikpo, M. (1991). State Formation in Pre-colonial Africa: Analysis of Long-Distance Trade and Surplus Accumulation in South-Eastern Nigeria, Pam Unique Publishers, Port Harcourt, Nigeria.
Aoyama, K. (1999). Ancient Maya State, Urbanism, Exchange and Craft Specialization: Chipped Stone Evidence from the Copan Valley and the La Entrada Region, University of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh, PA.
Apata, Z. O. (1990). Gonnigon activities among the O-Kun Yoruba. Odu 37: 192–195.
Arhin, K. (1990). Trade, accumulation and the state in Asante in the nineteenth century. Africa 60: 524–537.
Arkush, B. S. (1993). Prehistoric trade networks and the ethnographic record in central California. North American Archaeologist 14: 191–197.
Arnold, D. E. (1980). Localized exchange: An ethnoarchaeological perspective. In Fry, R. E. (ed.), Models and Methods in Regional Exchange, Papers No. 1, Society for American Archaeology, Washington, DC, pp. 147–150.
Arnold, J. E., Walsh, M. R., and Hollimon, S. E. (2004). The archaeology of California. Journal of Archaeological Research 12: 1–73.
Attolini-Lecon, A. (1994). The Peninsula of Yucatan’s trade during the XVth and XVIth centuries: Methodological problems in the study of sources. América Indígena 54: 27–39.
Aubert, J. J. (2001). The fourth factor: Managing non-agricultural production in the Roman world. In Mattingly, D. J., and Salmon, J. (eds.), Economies Beyond Agriculture in the Classical World, Routledge, London, pp. 90–111.
Austin, G. (2002). African business in nineteenth-century West Africa. In Jalloh, A., and Falola, T. (eds.), Black Business and Economic Power, University of Rochester Press, Rochester, NY, pp. 114–144.
Austin, G. (2004). Labor, Land and Capital in Ghana: From Slavery to Free Labor in Asante 1807–1956, University of Rochester Press, Rochester, NY.
Ball, H. G., and Brockington, D. L. (1978). Trade and travel in pre-Hispanic Oaxaca. In Lee Jr., T. A., and Navarrete, C. (eds.), Mesoamerican Communication Routes and Cultural Contacts, Papers No. 4, New World Archaeological Foundation, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, pp. 107–114.
Bandy, M. S. (2004). Trade and social power in the southern Titicaca Basin Formative. In Vaughn, K. J., Ogburn, D., and Conlee, C. A. (eds.), Foundations of Power in the Pre-Hispanic Andes, University of California Press, Berkeley, pp. 91–111.
Barfield, T. J. (2001). The shadow-empires: Imperial state formation along the Chinese-nomad frontier. In Alcock, S. E., D’Altroy, T., Morrison, K., and Sinopoli, C. M. (eds.), Empires: Perspectives from Archaeology to History, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 10–41.
Bar-Yosef, O. (2002). The Upper Paleolithic revolution. Annual Review of Anthropology 31: 363–393.
Bar-Yosef, O., and Belfer-Cohen, A. (1989). The PPNB interaction sphere. In Hershkovitz, I. (ed.), People and Cultures in Change, BAR International Series 508, Archaeopress, Oxford, pp. 59–72.
Bates, D. G., and Lees, S. H. (1977). The role of exchange in productive specialization. American Anthropologist 79: 824–841.
Bauer, B. S. (1992). The Development of the Inca State, University of Texas Press, Austin.
Baugh, T. G., and Ericson, J. E. (1993). Trade and exchange in a historical perspective. In Ericson, J. E., and Baugh, T. G. (eds.), The American Southwest and Mesoamerica: Systems of Prehistoric Exchange, Plenum Press, New York, pp. 3–26.
Bayman, J. M. (1995). Rethinking “redistribution” in the archaeological record: Obsidian exchange at the Marana Platform Mound. Journal of Anthropological Research 51: 37–63.
Beale, T. W. (1973). Early trade in highland Iran: A view from a source area. World Archaeology 5: 133–148.
Befu, H. (1977). Social exchange. Annual Review of Anthropology 6: 255–281.
Bellina, B. (2003). Beads, social change and interaction between India and South East Asia. Antiquity 78: 285–297.
Benedict, P. (1972). Itinerant marketing: An alternative strategy. In Wilmsen, E. (ed.), Social Exchange and Interaction, Anthropological Papers No. 46, Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, pp. 81–94.
Berdan, F. F. (1977). Distributive mechanisms in the Aztec economy. In Halperin, R., and Dow, J. (eds.), Peasant Livelihood, St. Martin’s Press, New York, pp. 99–101.
Berdan, F. F. (1978). Ports of trade in Mesoamerica: A reappraisal. In Lee Jr., T. A., and Navarrete, C. (eds.), Mesoamerican Communication Routes and Cultural Contacts, Papers No. 40, New World Archaeological Foundation, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, pp. 187–198.
Berdan, F. F., Blanton, R. E., Boone, E. H., Hodge, M., Smith, M. E., and Umberger, E. (eds.) (1996). Aztec Imperial Strategies, Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, DC.
Bishop, R. L. (1980). Aspects of ceramic compositional modeling. In Fry, R. E. (ed.), Models and Methods in Regional Exchange, Papers No. 1, Society for American Archaeology, Washington, DC, pp. 47–66.
Bisson, M. S. (1982). Trade and tribute: Archaeological evidence for the origin of states in South Central Africa. Cahiers d’Etudes Africaines 22: 343–361.
Bittman, B., and Sullivan, T. D. (1978). The Pochteca. In Lee Jr., T. A., and Navarrete, C. (eds.), Mesoamerican Communication Routes and Cultural Contacts, Papers No. 40, New World Archaeological Foundation, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, pp. 211–218.
Blanton, R. E. (1996). The Basin of Mexico market systems and the growth of empire. In Berdan, F. F., Blanton, R. E., Boone, E. H., Hodge, M., Smith, M. E., and Umberger, E. (eds.), Aztec Imperial Strategies, Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, DC, pp. 47–84.
Blanton, R. E. (1997). Review of Economies and Polities in the Aztec Realm: Studies on Culture and Society (M. Hodge and M. Smith, eds.). Latin American Antiquity 8: 160–116.
Blanton, R. E. (1998). Beyond centralization: Steps towards a theory of egalitarian behavior in archaic states. In Feinman, G. M., and Marcus, J. (eds.), Archaic States, School of American Research Press, Santa Fe, NM, pp. 135–172.
Blanton, R. E., and Feinman, G. M. (1984). The Mesoamerican world system. American Anthropologist 86: 673–682.
Blanton, R. E., and Peregrine, P. N. (1997). Main assumptions and variables for economic analysis beyond the local system. In Blanton, R. E., Peregrine, P. N., Winslow, D., and Thomas, D. (eds.), Economic Analysis beyond the Local System, Monographs in Economic Anthropology, Vol. 13, University Press of America, Lanham, MD, pp. 3–12.
Blanton, R. E., Kowalewski, S. A., Feinman, G. M., and Finsten, L. M. (eds.) (1993). Ancient Mesoamerica: A Comparison of Change in Three Regions, 2nd ed., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Blanton, R. E., Feinman, G. M., Kowalewski, S. A., and Peregrine, P. N. (1996). A dual processual theory for the evolution of Mesoamerican civilization. Current Anthropology 37: 1–14.
Blanton, R. E., Peregrine, P. N., Winslow, D., and Thomas, D. (eds.) (1997). Economic Analysis beyond the Local System, Monographs in Economic Anthropology, No. 13, University Press of America, Lanham, MD.
Blench, R. M. (1982). The silent trade: An Igala version. Cambridge Anthropology 7: 59–61.
Blundell, V., and Layton, R. (1978). Marriage, myth and models of exchange in the West Kimberleys. Mankind 11: 231–245.
Bogle, J. (2005). The Battle for the Soul of Capitalism, Yale University Press, New Haven, CT.
Bohannan, P., and Bohannan, L. (1968). Tiv Economy, Northwestern University Press, Evanston, IL.
Bohannan, P., and Dalton, G. (eds.) (1962). Markets in Africa, Northwestern University Press, Evanston, IL.
Boone, J. L., Myers, J. E., and Redman, C. L. (1990). Archaeological and historical approaches to complex societies. American Anthropologist 92: 630–646.
Braun, D. P., and Plog, S. (1982). Evolution of “tribal” social networks: Theory and prehistoric North American evidence. American Antiquity 47: 504–525.
Braund, D. C. (1991). Dio chrysostom, Olbian trade and Olbias ‘Tauroscythian war. Arkheolohiia 3: 25–30.
Brett, M. (1969). Ifriqiya as a market for Saharan trade from the tenth to the twelfth century A.D. Journal of African History 10: 347–364.
Brett, M. (1983). Islam and trade in the Bilad Al-Sudan: Tenth-eleventh century A.D. Journal of African History 24: 431–440.
Brittan, S. (1995). Capitalism with a Human Face, Edward Elgar, Aldershot, UK.
Bronson, B. (1977). Exchange at the upstream and downstream ends: Notes towards a functional model of the coastal state in Southeast Asia. In Hutterer, K. L. (ed.), Economic Exchange and Social Interaction in Southeast Asia: Perspectives from Prehistory, History and Ethnography, Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, pp. 39–52.
Browman, D. L. (1975). Trade patterns in the central highlands of Peru in the first millennium B.C. World Archaeology 6: 322–329.
Brumfiel, E. (1994). Factional competition and political development in the New World: An introduction. In Brumfiel, E., and Fox, J. (eds.), Factional Competition and Political Development in the New World, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 3–13.
Brumfiel, E., and Earle, T. K. (eds.) (1987). Specialization, Exchange and Complex Societies, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Brunton, R. (1971). Cargo cults and systems of exchange in Melanesia. Mankind 8: 115–128.
Caldwell, J. R. (1964). Interaction spheres in prehistory. In Caldwell, J. R., and Hall, R. L. (eds.), Hopewellian Studies, Scientific Papers No 12, Illinois State Museum, Springfield, pp. 133–143.
Carrasco, P. (1978). La economía del México prehispánico. In Carrasco, P., and Broda, J. (eds.), Economía política e ideología en el México prehispánico, Nueva Imagen, Mexico, pp. 15–76.
Carrier, J., and Carrier, A. (1989). Wage, Trade, and Exchange in Melanesia, University of California Press, Berkeley.
Caspers, E. C. L. D. (1972). A short survey of a still topical problem: The third millennium Arabian Gulf trade mechanism seen in the light of the recent discoveries in southern Iran. Acta Praehistorica et Archaeologica 3: 35–42.
Casson, L. (1979). Traders and trading: Classical Athens. Expedition 21(4): 25–32.
Casson, L. (1984). Ancient Trade and Society, Wayne State University Press, Detroit, MI.
Casson, L. (1989). Periplus Maris Erythraei, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
Casson, L. (1994). Travel in the Ancient World, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD.
Chang, K. C. (1975). Ancient trade as economy or as ecology. In Sabloff, J. A., and Lamberg-Karlovsky, C. C. (eds.), Ancient Civilization and Trade, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, pp. 211–223.
Chapman, A. (1957). Port of trade enclaves in Aztec and Maya civilizations. In Polanyi, K., Arensberg, C. M., and Pearson, H. W. (eds.), Trade and Market in the Early Empires: Economies in History and Theory, Free Press, Glencoe, IL, pp. 114–153.
Charlton, T. H., Nichols, D. L., and Charlton, C. O. (1991). Aztec craft production and specialization: Archaeological evidence from the city-state of Otumba, Mexico. World Archaeology 23: 98–114.
Chase-Dunn, C. (1992). The comparative study of world systems. Review 15: 313–333.
Chase-Dunn, C., and Anderson, E. N. (eds.) (2005). The Historical Evolution of World-Systems, Palgrave, New York.
Chase-Dunn, C., and Hall, T. (eds.) (1991). Core/Periphery Relations in Pre-Capitalist Worlds, Westview Press, Boulder, CO.
Chattopadhyaya, B. D. (1994). The Making of Early Medieval India, Oxford University Press, New Delhi.
Chaudhuri, K. N. (1985). Trade and Civilization in the Indian Ocean: An Economic History from the Rise of Islam to 1750, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Chauveau, J. P. (1976). Exchanges in pre-colonial Baule. Cahiers d’Etudes Africaines 16: 567–602.
Chenciner, R., and Magomedkhanov, M. (1992). Persian exports to Russia from the sixteenth to the nineteenth century. Iran 30: 123–130.
Clark, G. (1988). Traders versus the State: Anthropological Approaches to Unofficial Economies, Westview Press, Boulder, CO.
Clark, G. (1992). Flexibility equals survival: The diverse economic relations of African women traders adjust to stress better than do more rigid systems. Cultural Survival Quarterly 16: 21–24.
Clark, J. E., and Blake, M. (1994). The power of prestige, competitive generosity and the origins of rank societies in lowland Mesoamerica. In Brumfiel, E., and Fox, J. (eds.), Factional Competition and Political Development in the New World, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 17–30.
Clark, J. R. (1979). Modeling trade in non-literate archaeological contexts. Journal of Anthropological Research 35: 170–190.
Clastres, P. (1977). Society against the State: The Leader as Servant and the Humane uses of Power among the Indians of the Americas, Urizen Books, New York.
Clastres, P. (1987). Society against the State: Essays in Political Anthropology, Zone Books, New York.
Coblenz, W. (1978). Trade from the east in the area west of the Oder in the early medieval period. Zeitschrift Fur Archaologie 12: 139–143.
Codere, H. (1968). Money-exchange systems and a theory of money. Man n.s. 3: 557–577.
Cohen, A. (1966). Politics of the Kola trade: Some processes of tribal community formation among migrants in West African towns. Africa 36: 18–36.
Cohen, A. (1971). Cultural strategies in the organization of trading diasporas. In Meillassoux, C. (ed.), The Development of Indigenous Trade and Markets in West Africa, Oxford University Press, London, pp. 266-281.
Cohen, R. (1965). Some aspects of institutionalized exchange: A Kanuri example. Cahiers d’Etudes Africaines 5: 353–369.
Colson, A. B. (1973). Inter-tribal trade in the Guiana highlands. Antropologica 34: 1–70.
Colton, H. S. (1939). Prehistoric Cultural Units and their Relationships in Northern Arizona, Museum of Northern Arizona, Flagstaff.
Colton, H. S. (1941). Prehistoric trade in the Southwest. Scientific Monthly 52: 308–319.
Cordell, D. D. (1977). Eastern Libya, Wadai and the Sanusiya: A Tariqa and a trade route. Journal of African History 18: 21–36.
Cordell, L., and Plog, F. (1979). Escaping the confines of normative thought: A reevaluation of Puebloan prehistory. American Antiquity 44: 405–429.
Costin, C. L. (2001). Craft production systems. In Feinman, G. M., and Price, T. D. (eds.), Archaeology At the Millennium: A Sourcebook, Plenum Press, New York, pp. 273–327.
Cowgill, G. L. (1997). State and society at Teotihuacan, Mexico. Annual Review of Anthropology 26: 129–161.
Crawford, H. (1973). Mesopotamia’s invisible exports in the third millennium B.C. World Archaeology 5: 232–241.
Crawford, H. (1978). The mechanics of the obsidian trade: A suggestion. Antiquity 52: 129–132.
Creamer, W. (1983). Production and Exchange on Two Islands in the Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica, A.D. 1200–1500, Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA.
Crumley, C. (2001). Communication, holism, and the evolution of sociopolitical complexity. In Haas, J. (ed.), From Leaders to Rulers: The Development of Political Centralization, Kluwer Academic, New York, pp. 19–33.
Curtin, P. D. (1971). Pre-colonial trading networks and traders: The Diakhanké. In Meillassoux, C. (ed.), The Development of Indigenous Trade and Markets in West Africa, Oxford University Press, London, pp. 228–239.
Curtin, P. D. (1984). Cross-Cultural Trade in World History, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Dalton, G. (1969). Theoretical issues in economic anthropology. Current Anthropology 10: 63–102.
Dalton, G. (1975). Karl Polanyi’s analysis of long distance trade and his wider paradigm. In Sabloff, J. A., and Lamberg-Karlovsky, C. C. (eds.), Ancient Civilization and Trade, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, pp. 63–132.
Dalton, G. (1977). Aboriginal economies in stateless societies. In Earle, T. K., and Ericson, J. E. (eds.), Exchange Systems in Prehistory, Academic Press, New York, pp. 191–212.
D’Altroy, T., and Earle, T. K. (1985). Staple finance, wealth finance, and storage in the Inca political economy. Current Anthropology 26: 187–206.
Damon, F. H. (1980). The Kula and generalised exchange: Considering some unconsidered aspects of “the elementary structures of kinship.” Man n.s. 15: 267–292.
Dannhaeuser, N. (1983). Contemporary Trade Strategies in the Philippines: A study in Marketing Anthropology, Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, NJ.
Dave, R. K. (1992). Society and Culture of Marwar, Kusumanjali Prakashan, Jodhpur, India.
Davidson, T. E., and McKerrell, H. (1976). Pottery analysis and Halaf period trade in the Khabur headwaters region. Iraq 38: 45–56.
Davies, W. V., and Schofield, L. (eds.) (1995). Egypt, the Aegean and the Levant: Interconnections in the Second Millennium B.C., British Museum Press, London.
Davis, D. D. (1983). Investigating the diffusion of stylistic innovation. Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory 6: 53–89.
DeGarmo, G. D. (1977). Identification of prehistoric intra-settlement exchange. In Earle, T. K., and Ericson, J. E. (eds.), Exchange Systems in Prehistory, Academic Press, New York, pp. 153–170.
Dercksen, J. G. (ed.) (1997). Trade and Finance in Ancient Mesopotamia, Nederlands Historisch-Archaeologisch Instituut te Istanbul, Leiden, Netherlands.
Deutchman, H. L. (1980). Chemical evidence of ceramic exchange on Black Mesa. In Fry, R. E. (ed.), Models and Methods in Regional Exchange, Papers No. 1, Society for American Archaeology, Washington, DC, pp. 119–134.
Devine, P. (2002). The institutional context of entrepreneurial activity. In Adaman, F., and Devine, P. (eds.), Economy and Society: Money, Capitalism and Transition, Black Rose Books, Montreal, pp. 440–454.
Dhar, B. (1985). Monpa trade: An inter-ethnic interaction. Human Science 34: 67–70.
Doherty, C. (1980). Exchange and trade in early medieval Ireland. Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland 110: 67–89.
Donlan, W. (1994). Chiefs and followers in ancient Greece. In Duncan, C. M., and Tandy, D. W. (eds.), From Political Economy to Anthropology: Situating Economic Life in Past Societies, Black Rose Books, Montreal, pp. 34–51.
Drennan, R. (1991). Pre-Hispanic chiefdom trajectories in Mesoamerica, Central America, and northern South America. In Earle, T. (ed.), Chiefdoms: Power, Economy, and Ideology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 263–287.
Durkheim, E. (1964) The Division of Labor in Society, Free Press, Glencoe, IL.
Duyvendak, J. J. L. (1928). The Book of Lord Shang, Arthur Probsthain, London.
Earle, T. K. (1977). A reappraisal of redistribution: Complex Hawaiian chiefdoms. In Earle, T. K., and Ericson, J. E. (eds.), Exchange Systems in Prehistory, Academic Press, New York, pp. 213–232.
Earle, T. K. (1982). Prehistoric economies and the archaeology of exchange. In Ericson, J. E., and Earle, T. K. (eds.), Contexts for Prehistoric Exchange, Academic Press, New York, pp. 1–12.
Earle, T. K. (ed.) (1991a). Chiefdoms: Power, Economy, and Ideology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Earle, T. K. (1991b). Paths and road networks in evolutionary perspectives. In Trombold, C. D. (ed.), Ancient Road Networks and Settlements Hierarchies in the New World, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 10–16.
Earle, T. K. (1991c). Towards a behavioral archaeology. In Preucel, R. (ed.), Processual and Post-processual Archaeologies: Multiple Ways of Knowing the Past, Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale, pp. 83–95.
Earle, T. K. (1994). Positioning exchange in the evolution of human society. In Baugh, T. G., and Ericson, J. E. (eds.), Prehistoric Exchange Systems in North America, Plenum Press, New York, pp. 419–438.
Earle, T. K. (1997). How Chiefs Come to Power: The Political Economy in Prehistory, Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA.
Earle, T. K. (2002). Political economies of chiefdoms and agrarian states. In Earle, T. K. (ed.), Bronze Age Economics: The Beginnings of Political Economies, Westview Press, Boulder, CO, pp. 1–18.
Earle, T. K., and D’Altroy, T. N. (1982). Storage facilities and state finance in the upper Mantaro Valley, Peru. In Ericson, J. E., and Earle, T. K. (eds.), Contexts For Prehistoric Exchange, Academic Press, New York, pp. 265–290.
Earle, T. K., and Ericson, J. E. (eds.) (1977a). Exchange Systems in Prehistory, Academic Press, New York.
Earle, T. K., and Ericson, J. E. (1977b). Exchange systems in archaeological perspective. In Earle, T. K., and Ericson, J. E. (eds.), Exchange Systems in Prehistory, Academic Press, New York, pp. 3–14.
Easterlin, R. A. (2004). The Reluctant Economist: Perspectives on Economics, Economic History and Demography, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Economist (2005). HOMO ECONOMICUS? Sound economics may lie at the heart of humanity’s evolutionary success. The Economist April 7: 67.
Edwards, C. R. (1978). Pre-Columbian maritime trade in Mesoamerica. In Lee Jr., T. A., and Navarrete, C. (eds.), Mesoamerican Communication Routes and Cultural Contacts, Papers No. 40, New World Archaeological Foundation, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, pp. 199–210.
Ehrenreich, R. M., Crumley, C. L., and Levy, J. E. (eds.) (1995). Heterarchy and the Analysis of Complex Societies, Archeological Paper No. 5, American Anthropological Association, Arlington, VA.
Ekholm, G. F., and Willey, G. R. (eds.) (1966). Archaeological Frontiers and External Connections, University of Texas Press, Austin.
Elmberg, J. E. (1965). The Popot feast cycle: Acculturated exchange among the Mejprat Papuans. Ethnos Stockholm 30 (Suppl): 1–172.
Emmanuel, A. (1972). Unequal Exchange: A Study of the Imperialism of Trade, Monthly Review Press, New York.
Ensminger, J. (1992). Making a Market: The Institutional Transformation of an African Society, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Ensminger, J. (ed.) (2002). Theory in Economic Anthropology, Monographs in Economic Anthropology, No. 18, Altamira Press, Walnut Creek, CA.
Ericson, J. E. (1977). Egalitarian exchange systems in California: A preliminary view. In Earle, T. K., and Ericson, J. E. (eds.), Exchange Systems in Prehistory, Academic Press, New York, pp. 109–126.
Ericson, J. E. (1981). Exchange and Production Systems in Californian Prehistory: The Results of Hydration Dating and Chemical Characterization of Obsidian Sources, BAR International Series No. 110, British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.
Ericson, J. E., and Baugh, T. G. (eds.) (1993). The American Southwest and Mesoamerica: Systems of Prehistoric Exchange, Plenum Press, New York.
Ericson, J. E., and Earle, T. K. (eds.) (1982). Contexts for Prehistoric Exchange, Academic Press, New York.
Fagan, B. M. (1969). Early trade and raw materials in south central Africa. Journal of African History 10: 1–13.
Falola, T. (1991). The Yoruba caravan system of the nineteenth century, International Journal of African Historical Studies 24: 111–132.
Feinman, G. M. (1995). The emergence of inequality: A focus on strategies and processes. In Price, T. D., and Feinman, G. M. (eds.), Foundations of Social Inequality, Plenum Press, New York, pp. 255–279.
Feinman, G. M. (1996). Prehistoric social organization. In Fagan, B. M. (ed.), The Oxford Companion to Archaeology, Oxford University Press, New York.
Feinman, G. M., and Nicholas, L. M. (2004). Unraveling the pre-Hispanic highland Mesoamerican economy. In Feinman, G. M., and Nicholas, L. M. (eds.), Archaeological Perspective on Ancient Political Economies, University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City, pp. 167–221.
Feldman, L. H. (1978a). Moving merchandise in proto-historic central Quauhtemallan. In Lee Jr., T. A., and Navarrete, C. (eds.), Mesoamerican Communication Routes and Cultural Contacts, Papers No. 40, New World Archaeological Foundation, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, pp. 7–18.
Feldman, L. H. (1978b). Post-script to the Santa Cruz complex: A trial survey of specialization and trade in the period of initial contact. In Lee Jr., T. A., and Navarrete, C. (eds.), Mesoamerican Communication Routes and Cultural Contacts, Papers No. 40, New World Archaeological Foundation, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, pp. 141–144.
Feldman, L. H. (1978c). Inside a Mexica market. In Lee Jr., T. A., and Navarrete, C. (eds.), Mesoamerican Communication Routes and Cultural Contacts, Papers No. 40, New World Archaeological Foundation, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, pp. 219–222.
Ferman, L. A., Henry, S., and Hoyman, M. (1987). The Informal Economy, Sage Publications, Newbury Park, CA.
Fernandez-Tejedo, I. (1998). El Ppolom: mercaderillo o regaton. Arqueología Mexicana 5: 46–53.
Fewkes, J. W. (1896). Pacific Coast shells from prehistoric Tusayan Pueblos. American Anthropologist 8: 118–141.
Finley, M. (1985). The Ancient Economy, 2nd ed., University of California Press, Berkeley.
Finney, B. R. (1969). New Guinean Entrepreneurs: Indigenous Cash Cropping, Capital Formation and Investment in the New Guinea Highlands, Australian National University New Guinea Research Unit, Canberra.
Finney, B. R. (1973). Big-Men and Business, Entrepreneurship and Economic Growth in the New Guinea Highlands, University Press of Hawaii, Honolulu.
Firth, R. (1965). Primitive Polynesian Economy, 2nd ed., Routledge and Kegan Paul, London.
Fisher, J. F. (1986). Trans-Himalayan Traders, Economy, Society, and Culture in Northwest Nepal, University of California Press, Berkeley.
Flannery, K. V. (1968). The Olmec and the Valley of Oaxaca: A model for interregional interaction in Formative times. In Benson, E. P. (ed.), Dumbarton Oaks Conference on the Olmec, Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, DC, pp. 79–110.
Flannery, K. V. (1972). Summary comments: Evolutionary trends in social exchange and interaction. In Wilmsen, E. (ed.), Social Exchange and Interaction, Anthropological Papers No. 46. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, pp. 129–136.
Ford, R. I. (1972). Barter, gift or violence: An analysis of Tewa intertribal exchange. In Wilmsen, E. (ed.), Social Exchange and Interaction, Anthropological Papers No. 46, Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, pp. 21–45.
Forman, S. (1977). East Timor: Exchange and political hierarchy at the time of the European discoveries. In Hutterer, K. L. (ed.), Economic Exchange and Social Interaction in Southeast Asia: Perspectives from Prehistory, History and Ethnography, Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, pp. 97–112.
Foster, B. L. (1977). Trade, social conflict and social integration: Rethinking some old ideas on exchange. In Hutterer, K. L. (ed.), Economic Exchange and Social Interaction in Southeast Asia: Perspectives from Prehistory, History and Ethnography, Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, pp. 3–22.
Frank, A. G. (1993). The Bronze Age world system and its cycles. Current Anthropology 34: 383–413.
Frank, A. G., and Gills, B. K. (eds.) (1993). The World System: 500 years or 5000? Routledge, London.
Frankenstein, S., and Rowlands, M. (1978). The internal structure and regional context of Early Iron Age society in southwestern Germany. London University Institute of Archaeology Bulletin 15: 73–112.
Friedman, J., and Rowlands, M. J. (1978). Notes toward an epigenetic model of the evolution of “civilization.” In Friedman, J., and Rowlands, M. J. (eds.), The Evolution of Social Systems, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, pp. 201–276.
Frison, G. C. (1972). The role of buffalo procurement in post-Altithermal populations on the Northwestern Plains. In Wilmsen, E. (ed.), Social Exchange and Interaction, Anthropological Papers No. 46, Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, pp. 11–20.
Fry, R. E. (ed.) (1980a). Models and Methods in Regional Exchange, Papers No. 1, Society for American Archaeology, Washington, DC.
Fry, R. E. (1980b). Models for exchange for major shape classes of lowland Maya pottery. In Fry, R. E. (ed.), Models and Methods in Regional Exchange. Papers No. 1, Society for American Archaeology, Washington, DC, pp. 3–18.
Fry, R. E., and Cox, S. C. (1974). The structure of ceramic exchange at Tikal, Guatemala. World Archaeology 6: 209–225.
Fulford, M. G. (1989). To east and west: The Mediterranean trade of Cyrenaica and Tripolitania in antiquity. Libyan Studies 20: 169–191.
Gall, P. L., and Saxe, A. A. (1977). The ecological evolution of culture: The state as predator in succession theory. In Earle, T. K., and Ericson, J. E. (eds.), Exchange Systems in Prehistory, Academic Press, New York, pp. 255–260.
Gamble, C. (1980). Information exchange in the Palaeolithic. Nature 283: 522–523.
Gamble, C. (1998). Paleolithic society and the release from proximity: A network approach to intimate relations. World Archaeology 29: 429–449.
Garber, J. F. (1985). Long distance trade and regional exchange at the Maya community of Cerros in northern Belize. Mexicon 7: 13–16.
Garg, V. (1984). Trade Practices and Traditions: Origin and Development in India, Allied Publishers, New Delhi.
Gerlach, L. P. (1963). Traders on bicycle: A study of entrepreneurship and culture change among the Digo and Duruma of Kenya. Sociologus NF 13: 32–49.
Geva, S. (1982). Archaeological evidence for the trade between Israel and Tyre? Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 248: 69–72.
Gilman, A. (1983). Explaining the Upper Paleolithic revolution. In Spriggs, M. (ed.), Marxist Perspectives in Archaeology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 115–126.
Gilman, A. (1991). Trajectories towards social complexity in the later prehistory of the Mediterranean. In Earle, T. K. (ed.), Chiefdoms: Power, Economy, and Ideology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 146–169.
Gledhill, J., and Larsen, M. (1982). The Polanyi paradigm and a dynamic analysis of archaic states. In Renfrew, C. M., Rowlands, M. J., and Segraves, B. A. (eds.), Theory and Explanation in Archaeology: The Southampton Conference, Academic Press, New York, pp. 197–229.
Glover, I. C. (1989). Early Trade between India and South-East Asia: A Link in the Development of a World Trading System, Center for South East Asian Studies, University of Hull, Hull, UK.
Gmelch, S. B. (1986). Groups that don’t want in: Gypsies and other artisan, trader, and entertainer minorities. Annual Review of Anthropology 15: 307–330.
Godelier, M. (1969). Land tenure among the Baruya of New Guinea. Journal of the Papua New Guinea Society 3: 17–23.
Goody, E. N. (1982). From Craft to Industry: The Ethnography of Proto-Industrial Cloth Production, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Goody, J., and Mustapha, T. M. (1967). The caravan trade from Kano to Salaga. Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria 3: 611–616.
Gosling, L. A. P. (1977). Contemporary Malay traders in the Gulf of Siam. In Hutterer, K. L. (ed.), Economic Exchange and Social Interaction in Southeast Asia: Perspectives from Prehistory, History and Ethnography, Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, pp. 73–96.
Granovetter, M. (1985). Economic action and social structure: The problem of embeddedness. American Journal of Sociology 91: 481–510.
Greenfield, S. M., and Strickon, A. (eds.) (1986). Entrepreneurship and Social Change. Monographs in Economic Anthropology, No. 2, University Press of America, Lanham, MD.
Gregoire, E. (1991). Smugglers’ ways: A study of trading networks in Hausa land. Cahiers d’Etudes Africaines 31: 509–532.
Gregory, C. A. (1997). Savage Money: The Anthropology and Politics of Commodity Exchange, Harwood Academic, Amsterdam.
Grofman, B., and Landa, J. (1983). The development of trading networks among spatially separated traders as a process of proto-coalition formation: The Kula trade. Social Networks 5: 347–365.
Gudeman, S. (2001). The Anthropology of Economy, Community, Market and Culture, Blackwell Publishers, Oxford.
Guderjan, T. H., Garber, J. F., Smith, H. A., Stross, F., Michel, H. V., and Asaro, F. (1989). Maya maritime trade and sources of obsidian at San Juan, Ambergris Caye, Belize. Journal of Field Archaeology 16: 363–369.
Gupta, B. L. (1987). Trade and Commerce in Rajasthan during the 18th Century, Jaipur Publishing House, Jaipur, India.
Gurevich, F. D. (1972). A trade corporation in an ancient Russian town from archaeological data. Kratkiye Soobshcheniya O Dokladakh I Polevykh Issledovaniyakh 129: 31–36.
Gurevich, F. D. (1982). Foreign relations of the ancient Russian cities along the Neman. Kratkiye soobshcheniia – Institut arkheologii Moscow 171: 43–49.
Haas, J. (1982). The Evolution of the Prehistoric State, Columbia University Press, New York.
Haldane, C. (1993). Direct evidence for organic cargoes in the Late Bronze Age. World Archaeology 24: 348–360.
Hall, K. R. (1977). The coming of Islam to Southeast Asia: A reassessment. In Hutterer, K. L. (ed.), Economic Exchange and Social Interaction in Southeast Asia: Perspectives from Prehistory, History and Ethnography, Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, pp. 213–231.
Hall, K. R. (1981). The expansion of maritime trade in the Indian Ocean and its impact upon early state development in the Malay world. Review of Indonesian and Malayan Affairs 15: 108–135.
Hall, T. D., and Chase-Dunn, C. (1996). Comparing world systems, concepts and hypotheses. In Peregrine, P. N., and Feinman, G. M. (eds.), Pre-Colombian World Systems, Prehistory Press, Madison, WI, pp. 11–26.
Halperin, R. H. (1984). Polanyi, Marx and the institutional paradigm in economic anthropology. Research in Economic Anthropology 6: 245–272.
Hammond, N. (1978). Cacao and cobaneros: An overland trade route between the Maya highlands and lowlands. In Lee Jr., T. A., and Navarrete, C. (eds.), Mesoamerican Communication Routes and Cultural Contacts, Papers No. 40, New World Archaeological Foundation, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, pp. 19–26.
Hankey, V. (1970–1971). Mycenaean trade with the south-eastern Mediterranean. Melanges de l’Universite Saint-Joseph Beyrouth 46: 9–30.
Hårdh, B. (1977–1978). Trade and money in Scandinavia in the Viking Age. Meddelanden Fran Lunds Universitets Historiska Museum n.s. 2: 157–171.
Hårdh, B., Larsson, L., Olausson, D., and Petré, R. (eds.) (1988). Trade and Exchange in Prehistory: Essays in Honour of Berta Stjernquist, Lunds University Historiska Museum, Lund, Sweden.
Harding, T. G. (1965). Trade and politics: A comparison of Papuan and New Guinea traders. In Helm, J., Bohannan, P., and Sahlins, M. D. (eds.), Essays in Economic Anthropology: Dedicated to the Memory of Karl Polanyi, University of Washington Press, Seattle, pp. 46–53.
Harding, T. G. (1994). Pre-colonial New Guinea trade. Ethnology 33: 101–125.
Harris, M. (1968). Rise of Anthropological Theory, Thomas Y. Crowell, New York.
Hassig, R. (ed.) (1985). Trade, Tribute and Transportation: The Sixteenth-Century Political Economy of the Valley of Mexico, University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.
Hegmon, M. (ed.) (1999). The Archaeology of Regional Interaction, Religion, Warfare and Exchange across the American Southwest, University Press of Colorado, Boulder.
Heldman, D. P. (1973). Fort Toulouse of the Alabamas and the eighteenth century Indian trade. World Archaeology 5: 163–169.
Helms, M. W. (1979). Ancient Panama: Chiefs in Search of Power, University of Texas Press, Austin.
Heltzer, M. (1977). The metal trade of Ugarit and the problem of transportation of commercial goods. Iraq 39: 203–211.
Hill, P. (1969). Hidden trade in Hausaland. Man n.s. 4: 392–409.
Hirth, K. G. (1978). Interregional trade and the formation of gateway communities. American Antiquity 43: 35–45.
Hirth, K. G. (1998). The distributional approach: A new way to identify marketplace exchange in the archaeological record. Current Anthropology 39: 451–476.
Hirth, K. G. (ed.) (1984). Trade and Exchange in Early Mesoamerica, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.
Hodder, B. W., and Ukwu, U. I. (1969). Markets in West Africa: Studies of Markets and Trade among the Yoruba and the Ibo, Ibadan University Press, Ibadan, Nigeria.
Hodder, I. (1980). Trade and exchange: Definitions, identification, and function. In Fry, R. E. (ed.), Models and Methods in Regional Exchange, Papers No. 1, Society for American Archaeology, Washington, DC, pp. 151–156.
Hoopes, J. W. (1993). A view from the south: Prehistoric exchange in lower Central America. In Ericson, J. E., and Baugh, T. G. (eds.), The American Southwest and Mesoamerica: Systems of Prehistoric Exchange, Plenum Press, New York, pp. 247–282.
Horan, R. D., Bulte, E., and Shogren, J. F. (2005). How trade saved humanity from biological exclusion: An economic theory of Neanderthal extinction. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 58: 1–29.
Hornborg, A. (2003). The unequal exchange of time and space: Towards a non-normative ecological theory of exploitation. Journal of Ecological Anthropology 7: 4–10.
Horowitz, S. (2002). Explaining peasant-farmer hegemony in redistributive politics: Class-, trade-, and asset-based approaches. Comparative Studies in Society and History 44: 827–851.
Horton, M. (1996). Shanga: The Archaeology of a Muslim Trading Community on the Coast of East Africa, British Institute in Eastern Africa, Nairobi.
Hughes, I. (1977). New Guinea Stone Age Trade: The Geography and Ecology of Traffic in the Interior, Department of Prehistory Research, School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University, Canberra.
Hunt, R. C. (1965) The developmental cycle of the family business in rural Mexico. In Helm, J., Bohannan, P., and Sahlins, M. D. (eds.), Essays in Economic Anthropology: Dedicated to the Memory of Karl Polanyi, University of Washington Press, Seattle, pp. 54–79.
Hutterer, K. L. (ed.) (1977a). Economic Exchange and Social Interaction in Southeast Asia: Perspectives from Prehistory, History and Ethnography, Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
Hutterer, K. L. (1977b). Preface. In Hutterer, K. L. (ed.), Economic Exchange and Social Interaction in Southeast Asia: Perspectives from Prehistory, History and Ethnography, Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, pp. xiii–ix.
Ibrahim, M. (1990). Merchant Capital and Islam, University of Texas Press, Austin.
Igue, O. J. (1976). Evolution of illicit trade between Dahomey and Nigeria since the war of “Biafra.” Canadian Journal of African Studies 10: 235–257.
Irwin, G. J. (1978). Pots and entrepots: A study of settlement, trade and the development of economic specialization in Papuan prehistory. World Archaeology 9: 299–319.
Irwin-Williams, C. (1977). A network model for the analysis of prehistoric trade. In Earle, T. K., and Ericson, J. E. (eds.), Exchange Systems in Prehistory, Academic Press, New York, pp. 141–152.
Isaac, B. L. (1974). European, Lebanese, and African traders in Pendembu, Sierra Leone: 1908–1968. Human Organization 33: 111–121.
Isaac, B. L. (1993). Retrospective on the formalist-substantivist debate. In Isaac, B. L. (ed.), Research in Economic Anthropology, Vol. 14, JAI Press, Greenwich, CT, pp. 213–233.
Jessop, R. D. (2002). The social embeddedness of the economy and its implications for economic governance. In Adaman, F., and Devine, P. (eds.), Economy and Society: Money, Capitalism and Transition, Black Rose Books, Montreal, pp. 192–224.
Junker, L. L. (1990). The organization of intra-regional and long-distance trade in pre-Hispanic Philippine complex societies. Asian Perspectives 29: 167–209.
Junker, L. L. (1993). Crafts goods specialization and prestige goods exchange in Philippine chiefdoms of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Asian Perspectives 32: 1–35.
Junker, L. L. (1999). Trading, Raiding and Feasting: The Political Economy of Philippine Chiefdoms, University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu.
Kardulias, P. N. (1999). Preface. In Kardulias, P. N. (ed.), World Systems Theory in Practice: Leadership, Production and Exchange, Rowman and Littlefield, Boulder, CO, pp. xvii–xxi.
Kathirithamby-Wells, J., and Villiers, J. (eds.) (1990). The Southeast Asian Port and Polity, Singapore University Press, Singapore.
Keegan, W. F. (1994). West Indian archaeology, 1: Overview and foragers. Journal of Archaeological Research 2: 255–284.
Kennedy, J. (1977). From stage to development in prehistoric Thailand: An exploration of the origins of growth exchange and variability in Southeast Asia. In Hutterer, K. L. (ed.), Economic Exchange and Social Interaction in Southeast Asia: Perspectives from Prehistory, History and Ethnography, Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, pp. 28–38.
Khazanov, A. M., and Wink, A. (eds.) (2001). Nomads in the Sedentary World, Curzon, Richmond, Surrey, UK.
Khuri, K. L. (1965). Kinship, emigration, and trade partnership among the Lebanese of West Africa. Africa 35: 385–395.
Kidder, A. V. (1962). An Introduction to the Study of Southwestern Archaeology, Yale University Press, New Haven, CT.
Kiem, C. G. (1993). The Indian trading minority in East Africa: Causes and development of an unresolved conflict. Sociologus 43: 146–167.
King, J. L. (1978). Central Mexico as part of the general Mesoamerican communications system. In Lee Jr., T. A., and Navarrete, C. (eds.), Mesoamerican Communication Routes and Cultural Contacts, Papers No. 40, New World Archaeological Foundation, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, pp. 115–122.
Kipp, R. S., and Schortman, E. M. (1989). The political impact of trade in chiefdoms. American Anthropologist 91: 370–385.
Kirch, P. (1991). Prehistoric exchange in Western Melanesia. Annual Review of Anthropology 20: 141–165.
Kiviat, B. (2005). 10 questions for John Bogle. Time September 12: 8.
Klengel, H. (1978). On the development of trade in the ancient Near East. Ethnographisch-Archaologische Zeitschrift 19: 211–225.
Knapp, A.B. (1993). Thalassocracies in Bronze Age eastern Mediterranean trade: Making and breaking a myth. World Archaeology 24: 332–347.
Knapp, A. B., and Cherry, J. F. (1994). Provenience Studies and Bronze Age Cyprus, Prehistory Press, Madison, WI.
Kohl, P. L. (1975). The archeology of trade. Dialectical Anthropology 1: 43–50.
Kohl, P. L. (1978). The balance of trade in southwestern Asia in the mid-third millennium B.C. Current Anthropology 19: 463–492.
Kohl, P. L. (1987). Ancient economy, transferable technologies and the Bronze Age world-system: A view from the northeastern frontier of the ancient Near East. In Friedman, J., and Rowlands, M. J. (eds.), Centre and Periphery in the Ancient World, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 13–24.
Köhler, U. (1978). Reflections on Zinacantan’s role in Aztec trade with Soconusco. In Lee Jr., T. A., and Navarrete, C. (eds.), Mesoamerican Communication Routes and Cultural Contacts, Papers No. 40, New World Archaeological Foundation, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, pp. 67–74.
Kottak, C. P. (1972). A cultural adaptive approach to Malagasy political organization. In Wilmsen, E. (ed.), Social Exchange and Interaction, Anthropological Papers No. 46, Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, pp. 107–128.
Kramer, S. N. (1977). Commerce and trade: Gleanings from Sumerian literature. Iraq 39: 59–66.
Kranton, R. (1996). Reciprocal exchange: A self-sustaining system. American Economic Review 86: 830–851.
Krapf-Askari, E. (1969). Yoruba Towns and Cities, Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Krugman, P. R. (1987). Is free trade passé? Journal of Economic Perspectives 1: 131–144.
Kusimba, C. M. (1993). The Archaeology and Ethnography of Iron Metallurgy of the Kenya Coast, Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Bryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr, PA.
Kusimba, C. M. (1999a). Material symbols among the pre-colonial Swahili of the East African coast. In Robb, J. (ed.), Material Symbols, Culture and Economy in Prehistory, Center for Archaeological Investigations, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, pp. 318–341.
Kusimba, C. M. (1999b). The Rise and Fall of Swahili States, Altamira Press, Walnut Creek, CA.
Kusimba, C. M. (2005). African cities and their hinterlands. Paper presented at the Arthur M. Sackler Conference on Early Cities at the National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC.
La Lone, D. E. (1982). The Inca as a non-market economy: Supply on command versus supply and demand. In Ericson, J. E., and Earle, T. K. (eds.), Contexts for Prehistoric Exchange, Academic Press, New York, pp. 292–316.
Lahiri, N. (1992). The Archaeology of Indian Trade Routes up to c. 200 B.C.: Resources Use, Resource Access and Lines of Communication, Oxford University Press, New Delhi.
Lamberg-Karlovsky, C. C. (1975). Third millennium modes of exchange and modes of production. In Sabloff, J. A., and Lamberg-Karlovsky, C. C. (eds.), Ancient Civilization and Trade, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, pp. 341–368.
Larsen, M. T. (1977). Partnerships in the old Assyrian trade. Iraq 39: 119–145.
Latham, A. J. H. (1978). Price fluctuations in the early palm oil trade. Journal of African History 19: 213–218.
Lathrap, D. W. (1973). The antiquity and importance of long-distance trade relationships in the moist tropics of pre-Columbian South America. World Archaeology 5: 170–186.
Launay, R. (1978). Transactional spheres and inter-societal exchange in Ivory Coast. Cahiers d’Etudes Africaines 18: 561–573.
Law, R. (1977). Royal monopoly and private enterprise in the Atlantic trade: The case of Dahomey. Journal of African History 18: 555–577.
Law, R. (1992). Posthumous questions for Karl Polanyi: Price inflation in pre-colonial Dahomey. Journal of African History 33: 387–420.
Leach, E. R. (1954). Political Systems of Highland Burma, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
Leach, E. R. (1971). Rethinking Anthropology, Humanities Press, New York.
Leciejewicz, L. (1978). Traders in early towns in the Baltic area from an archaeological standpoint. Zeitschrift Fur Archäologie 12: 191–203.
LeClair, E. E., and Schneider, H. K. (1968). Economic Anthropology, Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, New York.
Lee Jr., T. A. (1978). The historical routes of Tabasco and northern Chiapas and their relationship to early cultural developments in central Chiapas. In Lee Jr., T. A., and Navarrete, C. (eds.), Mesoamerican Communication Routes and Cultural Contacts, Papers No. 40, New World Archaeological Foundation, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, pp. 49–66.
Lee Jr., T. A., and Navarrete, C. (eds.) (1978). Mesoamerican Communication Routes and Cultural Contacts, Papers No. 40, New World Archaeological Foundation, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT.
Leemans, W. F. (1977). The importance of trade: Some introductory remarks. Iraq 39: 1–10.
Leeson, P. T. (2005). Self-enforcing arrangements in African political economy. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 57: 241–244.
Leirissa, R. Z. (1993). The structure of Makassar-Bugis trade in pre-modern Moluccas. Review of Indonesian and Malayan Affairs 27: 77–90.
Leroy, J. (1979). Competitive exchange in Kewa. Journal of the Polynesian Society 88: 9–35.
Lévi-Strauss, C. (1969). The Elementary Structures of Kinship, 2nd ed., Eyre and Spottiswode, London.
Levy, J. E. (1986). Review of Farms, Villages, and Cities: Commerce and Urban Origins in Late Prehistoric Europe (P. Wells). American Anthropologist 88: 720–721.
Lewicki, T. (1964). Historical background of trans-Saharan trade: Ibadite merchants and missionaries in western and central Sudan between the VIIIth and XIIth centuries. Etnografia Polska 8: 291–311.
Lisle-Williams, M. (1984). Beyond the market: The survival of family capitalism in the English merchant banks. British Journal of Sociology 35: 241–271.
Littrel, M. A. (1997). Alternative trading organisations: Shifting paradigm in culture of social responsibility. Human Organization 56: 344–352.
Loewe, M. (1971). Spices and silk: Aspects of world trade in the first seven centuries of the Christian era. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 2: 166–169.
Lomnitz, L. (1988). Informal exchange networks in formal systems: A theoretical model. American Anthropologist 90: 42–55.
Lomnitz, L. (2002). Reciprocity, redistribution and market exchange in the informal economy. In Adaman, F., and Devine, P. (eds.), Economy and Society: Money, Capitalism and Transition, Black Rose Books, Montreal, pp. 172–191.
Lovejoy, P. E. (1973). The Kambarin Beriberi: The formation of a specialized group of Hausa kola traders in the nineteenth century. Journal of African History 14: 633–651.
Lovell, S., Ledeneva, A. V., and Rogachevskii, A. (eds.) (2000). Bribery and Blat in Russia, St. Martin’s Press, New York.
Lynn, M. (1992). Technology, trade and “a race of native capitalists”: The Krio diaspora of West Africa and the steamship 1852–95. Journal of African History 33: 421–440.
Macknight, C. C. (1973). The nature of early maritime trade: Some points of analogy from the eastern part of the Indonesian Archipelago. World Archaeology 5: 198–208.
MacReady, S., and Thompson, F. H. (eds.) (1984). Cross-Channel Trade between Gaul and Britain in the Pre-Roman Iron Age, Occasional Paper (n.s.) 4, Society of Antiquaries, London.
Malinowski, B. (1922). Argonauts of the Western Pacific, Waveland Press, Long Grove, IL.
Malkiel, B. G. (1996). A Random Walk down Wall Street, W. W. Norton, New York.
Malville, N. J. (2001). Long-distance transport of bulk goods in the pre-Hispanic American Southwest. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 20: 230–243.
Mancourant, J. (2002). Polanyi on institutions and money: An interpretation suggested by a reading of Commons, Mitchell and Veblen. In Adaman, F., and Devine, P. (eds.), Economy and Society: Money, Capitalism and Transition, Black Rose Books, Montreal, pp. 150–172.
Mann, M. (1986). The Sources of Social Power: A History of Power from the Beginning to A.D. 1760, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Manning, J. G., and Morris, I. (eds.) (2005). Ancient Economy: Evidence and Models, Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA.
Marcus, J. (1983). Lowland Maya archaeology at the crossroads. American Antiquity 48: 454–488.
Martin, B. G. (1969). Kanem, Bornu and the Fazzan: Notes on the political history of a trade route. Journal of African History 10: 15–27.
Masters, B. (1992). The sultan’s entrepreneurs: The Avrupa Tuccari’s and the Hayriye Tuccari’s in Syria. International Journal of Middle East Studies 24: 579–597.
Mattingly, D. J., and Salmon, J. (2001). The productive past: Economies beyond agriculture. In Mattingly, D. J., and Salmon, J. (eds.), Economies beyond Agriculture in the Classical World, Routledge, London, pp. 3–14.
Mattingly, D. J., Stone, D., Stirling, L., and Ben Lazreg, N. (2001). Leptiminus (Tunisia), a “producer” city? In Mattingly, D. J., and Salmon, J. (eds.), Economies Beyond Agriculture in the Classical World, Routledge, London, pp. 66–89.
Mauss, M. (1990 [1925]). The Gift: Forms and Means of Archaic Exchange, Routledge, London.
McAnany, P. A. (1992). A theoretical perspective on elites and the economic transformation of Classic period Maya households. In Ortiz, S., and Lees, S. (eds.), Understanding Economic Process, Monographs in Economic Anthropology, No. 10, University Press of America, Lanham, MD, pp. 85–101.
McDowell, N. (1976). Kinship and exchange: The Kamain relationship in a Yuat River village. Oceania 47: 36–48.
McKillop, H. I. (1989). Coastal Maya trade: Obsidian densities at Wild Cane Cay. Research in Economic Anthropology 11: 17–56.
McKillop, H. I. (2005). In Search of Maya Sea Traders, Anthropology Series No. 11, Texas A & M University, College Station.
McVicker, D. E. (1978). Pre-Hispanic trade in central Chiapas. In Lee Jr., T. A., and Navarrete, C. (eds.), Mesoamerican Communication Routes and Cultural Contacts, Papers No. 40, New World Archaeological Foundation, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, pp. 177–187.
Meillassoux, C. (ed.) (1971). The Development of Indigenous Trade and Markets in West Africa, Oxford University Press, London.
Meillassoux, C. (1972). From reproduction to production: A Marxist approach to economic anthropology. Economy and Society 1: 93–105.
Meneses, E. H. H. (1987). Traders and marginality in a complex social system. Ethnology 26: 231–244.
Merani, H. V., and Van Der Laan, H. L. (1979). The Indian traders in Sierra Leone. African Affairs 78: 240–250.
Middleton, J. (1992). The World of the Swahili: An African Mercantile Civilization, Yale University Press, New Haven, CT.
Millman, H. A. (1954). The Marwari: A study of a group of the trading castes of India, MA thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Los Angeles.
Mingioni, E. (1991). Fragmented Societies: A Sociology of Economic Life Beyond the Market Paradigm, Basil Blackwell, Oxford.
Mitchell, P. K. (1962). Trade routes of the early Sierra Leone protectorate. Sierra Leone Studies n.s. 16: 204–217.
Mitra, A. (1977). The terms of trade, class conflict and classical political economy. Journal of Peasant Studies 4: 181–194.
Mohan, G., Brown, E., and Milward, B. (eds.) (2000). Structural Adjustment: Theory, Practice and Impacts, Routledge, London.
Moholy-Nagy, H. (1999). Mexican obsidian at Tikal, Guatemala. Latin American Antiquity 10: 300–313.
Morris, I. (1994). Community against the market in classical Athens. In Duncan, C. M., and Tandy, D. W. (eds.), From Political Economy to Anthropology: Situating Economic Life in Past Societies, Black Rose Books, Montreal, pp. 52–79.
Morrison, K. D., and Junker, L. (eds.) (2002). Forager-Traders in South and Southeast Asia: Long term Histories, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Mudenge, S. I. (1974). The role of foreign trade in the Rozvi empire: A reappraisal. Journal of African History 15: 373–391.
Murra, J. V. (1956). The Economic Organization of the Inca State, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Navarrete, C. (1978). The prehistoric system of communications between Chiapas and Tabasco. In Lee Jr., T. A., and Navarrete, C. (eds.), Mesoamerican Communication Routes and Cultural Contacts, Papers No. 40, New World Archaeological Foundation, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, pp. 75–106.
Nichols, D. L., Brumfiel, E. M., Neff, H., Hodge, M. G., Charlton, T. H., and Glascock, M. D. (2002). Neutrons, markets, cities, and empires: A 1000-year perspective on ceramic production and distribution in the Post-Classic Basin of Mexico. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 21: 25–82.
Nishimura, M. (1986). An attempt to build a model for long distance trade and the development of complex societies in prehistoric Southeast Asia. Japanese Journal of Ethnology 50: 378–407.
Nishimura, M. (1988). Long distance trade and the development of complex societies in the prehistory of the central Philippines, the Cebu archaeological project: Basic concepts and first results. Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society 16: 107–157.
Northrup, D. (1972). The growth of trade among the Igbo before 1800. Journal of African History 13: 217–236.
Nwabughuogu, A. I. (1981). From wealthy entrepreneurs to petty traders: The decline of African middlemen in eastern Nigeria 1900–1950. Journal of African History 23: 365–379.
Offer, A. (1997). Between the gift and the market: The economy of regard. Economic History Review 50: 450–476.
Offner, J. A. (1981a). On Carrasco’s use of theoretical “first principles.” American Antiquity 46: 69–74.
Offner, J. A. (1981b). On the inapplicability of “Oriental despotism” and the “Asiatic mode of production” to the Aztecs of Texcoco. American Antiquity 46: 43–61.
Ogburn, D. (2004a). Evidence for long distance transport of building stone in the Inka Empire, from Cuzco, Peru, to Saraguro, Ecuador. Latin American Antiquity 15: 419–439.
Ogburn, D. (2004b). Dynamic display, propaganda and the reinforcement of provincial power in the Inka empire. In Vaughn, K. J., Ogburn, D., and Conlee, C. A. (eds.), Foundations of Power in the Pre-Hispanic Andes, University of California Press, Berkeley, pp. 225–240.
Oka, R. C. (n.d.). Ethnographic research on Afrasian trading groups, Department of Anthropology, Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, IL.
Oka, R. C. (2002). Trade and traders in East Africa, A.D. 1500–1800. Paper presented at the 102nd Annual Meeting of the American Anthropological Association, New Orleans, LA.
Oka, R. C. (2006). Network or bust: Network stability through co-operation for trade continuity among merchant communities of Afrasia. Paper presented at the 106th Annual Meeting of the American Anthropological Association, San Jose, CA.
Ollsson, G. (1965). Distance and Human Interaction: A Review and Bibliography, Regional Science Research Institute, Philadelphia, PA.
Omohundro, J. T. (1977). Trading patterns of Philippine Chinese: Strategies of sojourning middlemen. In Hutterer, K. L. (ed.), Economic Exchange and Social Interaction in Southeast Asia: Perspectives from Prehistory, History and Ethnography, Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, pp. 113–136.
Orser Jr., C. E. (1984). Trade good flow in Arikara villages: Expanding Ray’s “middleman hypothesis.” Plains Anthropologist 29: 1–12.
Ortiz, S., and Lees, S. (eds.) (1992). Understanding Economic Process, Monographs in Economic Anthropology, No. 10, University Press of America, Lanham, MD.
Osborne, R. (1996). Pots, trade and the archaic Greek economy. Antiquity 70: 31–44.
Padgett, J. F. (2001). Organizational genesis, identity and control: The transformation of banking in Renaissance Florence. In Rauch, J. E., and Casella, A. (eds.), Networks and Markets, Russell Sage, New York, pp. 211–257.
Parkins, H. M., and Smith, C. (eds.) (1998). Trade, Traders and the Ancient City, Routledge, London.
Parry, J., and Bloch, M. (eds.) (1989). Money and the Morality of Exchange, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Patnaik, P. (1996–1997). Trade as mechanism of economic retrogression. Journal of Peasant Studies 24: 211–225.
Paynter, R. (1989). Archaeology of equality and inequality. Annual Review of Anthropology 18: 369–399.
Pearson, M. N. (1976). Merchants and Rulers in Gujarat: The Response to the Portuguese in the Sixteenth Century, University of California Press, Berkeley.
Pearson, M. N. (1999). Port Cities and Intruders: The Swahili Coast, India, and Portugal in the Early Modern Era, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD.
Pendergast, R. A. (1972). The economics of the Montreal traders. West Canadian Journal of Anthropology 3: 34–42.
Peregrine, P. N. (1991a). Prehistoric chiefdoms on the American mid-continent: A world system based on prestige goods. In Chase-Dunn, C., and Hall, T. D. (eds.), Core/Periphery Relations in Pre-Capitalist Worlds, Westview Press, Boulder, CO, pp. 193–211.
Peregrine, P. N. (1991b). Some political aspects of craft specialization. World Archaeology 23: 1–11.
Peregrine, P. N. (1992). Mississippian Evolution: A World System Perspective, Prehistory Press, Madison, WI.
Peregrine, P. N. (1996a). Hyperopia or hyperbole? The Mississippian world system. In Peregrine, P. N., and Feinman, G. M. (eds.), Pre-Colombian World Systems, Prehistory Press, Madison, WI, pp. 39–50.
Peregrine, P. N. (1996b). Introduction: World systems theory and archaeology. In Peregrine, P. N., and Feinman, G. M. (eds.), Pre-Colombian World Systems, Prehistory Press, Madison, WI, pp. 1–10.
Peregrine, P. N., and Feinman, G. M. (eds.) (1996). Pre-Colombian World Systems, Prehistory Press, Madison, WI.
Peterson, J. T. (1977). Ecotones and exchange in northern Luzon. In Hutterer, K. L. (ed.), Economic Exchange and Social Interaction in Southeast Asia: Perspectives from Prehistory, History and Ethnography, Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, pp. 55–72.
Piña Chan, R. (1978). Commerce in the Yucatan peninsula: The conquest and colonial period. In Lee Jr., T. A., and Navarrete, C. (eds.), Mesoamerican Communication Routes and Cultural Contacts, Papers No. 40, New World Archaeological Foundation, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, pp. 37–38.
Pitiphat, S. (1992). Interaction of an unknown hill people in northwestern Thailand with the ancient trade along the Silk Road. Senri Ethnological Studies 32: 103–116.
Plog, F. (1977). Modeling economic exchange. In Earle, T. K., and Ericson, J. E. (eds.), Exchange Systems in Prehistory, Academic Press, New York, pp. 127–140.
Plog, S. (1980). Village autonomy in the American Southwest: An evaluation of the evidence. In Fry, R. E. (ed.), Models and Methods in Regional Exchange, Papers No. 1, Society for American Archaeology, Washington, DC, pp. 135–146.
Plog, S. (1993). Changing perspectives on north and middle American exchange systems. In Ericson, J. E., and Baugh, T. G. (eds.), The American Southwest and Mesoamerica: Systems of Prehistoric Exchange, Plenum Press, New York, pp. 285–292.
Plotkin, K. V. (1973). The role of trade in the ethnic history of pre-colonial East Africa. Sovetskaya Etnografiya 2: 32–41.
Polanyi, K. (1947). Our obsolete market mentality. Commentary 13: 109–117.
Polanyi, K. (1963). Ports of trade in early societies. Journal of Economic History 23: 30–45.
Polanyi, K. (1966). Dahomey and the Slave Trade, University of Washington Press, Seattle.
Polanyi, K. (1975). Traders and trade. In Sabloff, J. A., and Lamberg-Karlovsky, C. C. (eds.), Ancient Civilization and Trade, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, pp. 133–154.
Polanyi, K. (2001). The Great Transformation: The Political and Economic Origins of our Time, 2nd ed., Beacon Press, Boston.
Polanyi, K., Arensberg, C. M., and Pearson, H. W. (eds.) (1957). Trade and Market in the Early Empires: Economies in History and Theory, Free Press, Glencoe, IL.
Posnansky, M. (1973). Aspects of early West African trade. World Archaeology 5: 149–162.
Pospisil, L. (1963). Kapauku Papuan Economy, HRAF Publications, New Haven, CT.
Price, B. J. (1977). Shifts in production and organization: A cluster interaction model. Current Anthropology 18: 209–234.
Price, B. J. (1978). Commerce and cultural process in Mesoamerica. In Lee Jr., T. A., and Navarrete, C. (eds.), Mesoamerican Communication Routes and Cultural Contacts, Papers No. 40, New World Archaeological Foundation, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, pp. 231–246.
Rands, R. L., and Bishop, R. L. (1980). Resource procurement zones and patterns of ceramic exchange in the Palenque region. In Fry, R. E. (ed.), Models and Methods in Regional Exchange, Papers No. 1, Society for American Archaeology, Washington, DC, pp. 19–46.
Rathbone, D. (2003). Economic Rationalism and Rural Society in Third-Century A.D. Egypt: The Heroninos Archive and the Appianus Estate, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Rathje, W. L. (1975). The last tango in Mayapán: A tentative trajectory of a production-distribution system. In Sabloff, J. A., and Lamberg-Karlovsky, C. C. (eds.), Ancient Civilization and Trade, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, pp. 409–447.
Rathje, W. L., and Sabloff, J. A. (1972). Cozumel, Quintana Roo, Mexico: One test of a model of central fluidity and ports-of-trade. Paper presented at the 38th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Miami.
Rathje, W. L., and Sabloff, J. A. (1973). A research design for Cozumel, Mexico. World Archaeology 5: 221–231.
Rathje, W. L., Gregory, D. A., and Wiseman, F. M. (1978). Trade models and archaeological problems: Classic Maya examples. In Lee Jr., T. A., and Navarrete, C. (eds.), Mesoamerican Communication Routes and Cultural Contacts, Papers No. 40, New World Archaeological Foundation, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, pp. 147–176.
Ratnagar, S. (1981). Encounters: The Westerly Trade of the Harappa Civilization, Oxford University Press, New York.
Ray, H. P. (1986). Monastery and Guild: Commerce under the Satavahanas, Oxford University Press, New Delhi.
Rehfisch, F. (1962). Competitive gift exchange among the Mambila. Cahiers d’Etudes Africaines 3: 91–103.
Renfrew, C. M. (1967). Cycladic metallurgy and the Aegean Bronze Age. American Journal of Archaeology 71: 1–20.
Renfrew, C. M. (1969). Trade and culture process in European prehistory. Current Anthropology 10: 151–169.
Renfrew, C. M. (1975). Trade as action at a distance, questions of integration and communication. In Sabloff, J. A., and Lamberg-Karlovsky, C. C. (eds.), Ancient Civilization and Trade, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, pp. 3–59.
Renfrew, C. M. (1977). Alternative models for exchange and spatial distribution. In Earle, T. K., and Ericson, J. E. (eds.), Exchange Systems in Prehistory, Academic Press, New York, pp. 71–90.
Renfrew, C. M., and Cooke, K. L. (eds.) (1979). Transformations: Mathematical Approaches to Culture Change, Academic Press, New York.
Renfrew, C. M., Cann, J. A., and Dixon, J. E. (1965). Obsidian in the Aegean. Annual of the British School at Athens 60: 225–247.
Renfrew, C. M., Dixon, J. E., and Cann, J. A. (1966). Obsidian and early cultural contact in the early Near East. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 32: 30–72.
Renfrew, C. M., Rowlands, M. J., and Segraves, B. A. (eds.) (1982). Theory and Explanation in Archaeology: The Southampton Conference, Academic Press, New York.
Rice, P. M. (1980). Peten Postclassic pottery production and exchange: A view from Macanche. In Fry, R. E. (ed.), Models and Methods in Regional Exchange, Papers No. 1, Society for American Archaeology, Washington, DC, pp. 67–82.
Riviére, E. (1904). Bracelets, parures, monnaies d’échange, fétiches. Bulletin de la Societé Préhistorique Française 1.
Robin, C. (2003). New directions in classic Maya household archaeology. Journal of Archaeological Research 11: 307–356.
Rose, M. B. (ed.) (1995). Family Business, International Library of Critical Writings in Business History, Aldershot, Hants, UK.
Roseberry, W. (1989). Anthropologies and Histories: Essays in Culture, History and Political Economy, Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, NJ.
Rostovzeff, M. I. (1998). The Social and Economic History of the Hellenistic World, 2nd ed., Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Rostworowski de Diez Canseco, M. (1970). Mercaderes del valle de Chincha en la época prehipánica: unos documentos y unos comentarios. Revista Española de Antropología Americana 5: 135–177.
Rostworowski de Diez Canseco, M. (1977). Coastal fishermen, merchants and artisans in pre-Hispanic Peru. In Benson, E. P. (ed.), The Sea in the Pre-Colombian World: Conference at Dumbarton Oaks, Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, DC, pp. 167–188.
Rotstein, A. (1972). Trade and politics: An institutional approach. West Canadian Journal of Anthropology 3: 1–28.
Rowlands, M. J. (1979). Local and long distance trade and incipient state formation on the Bamenda plateau in the late 19th century. Paideuma 25: 1–19.
Rowlands, M. J., Larsen, M. S., and Kristiansen, K. (eds.) (1987). Centre and Periphery in the Ancient World, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Rubel, P. G., and Rosman, A. (1975). Exchange partners in New Guinea societies. Social Science Information 14: 65–79.
Rubel, P. G., and Rosman, A. (1976). Big man structure and exchange systems in New Guinea. Social Science Information 15: 117–127.
Rubin, G. (1975). Traffic in women: Notes on the “political economy” of sex. In Reiter, R. R. (ed.), Toward an Anthropology of Women, Monthly Review Press, New York, pp. 157–210.
Rudner, D. (1994). Caste and Capitalism in Colonial India: The Nattukottai Chettiars, University of California Press, Berkeley.
Sabloff, J. A., and Friedel, D. A. (1975). A model of a pre-Colombian trading center. In Sabloff, J. A., and Lamberg-Karlovsky, C. C. (eds.), Ancient Civilization and Trade, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, pp. 369–408.
Sabloff, J. A., and Lamberg-Karlovsky, C. C. (eds.) (1975). Ancient Civilization and Trade, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.
Sabol Jr., J. G. (1978). Trade and the development of local status and rank in Dallas society. Tennessee Anthropologist 3: 14–30.
Sahlins, M. D. (1963). Poor man, rich man, big-man, chief: Political types in Melanesia and Polynesia. Comparative Studies in Society and History 5: 285–303.
Sahlins, M. D. (1965). Exchange-value and the diplomacy of primitive trade. In Helm, J., Bohannan, P., and Sahlins, M. D. (eds.), Essays in Economic Anthropology: Dedicated to the Memory of Karl Polany, University of Washington Press, Seattle, pp. 95–129.
Sahlins, M. D. (1972). Stone Age Economics, Aldine, Chicago, IL.
Santley, R. S. (1985). The political economy of the Aztec empire. Journal of Anthropological Research 41: 327–337.
Sarkar, B. K. (trans.) (1914). Sukraniti, Indian Press, Allahabad, India.
Schaefer, P. D. (1969). Prehistoric trade in the Southwest and the distribution of Pueblo IV Hopi Jeddito black-on-yellow. Kroeber Anthropological Society Papers 41: 54–77.
Schneider, H. K. (1968). Exchange of cattle in Africa. American Anthropologist 70: 757–758.
Schneider, H. K. (1974). Economic Man, Free Press, New York.
Schneider, J. (1991). Was there a pre-capitalist world system? In Chase-Dunn, C., and Hall, T. D. (eds.), Core/Periphery Relations in Pre-Capitalist Worlds, Westview Press, Boulder, CO, pp. 45–66.
Schortman, E. M., and Urban, P. A. (1987). Modeling interregional interactions in prehistory. In Schiffer, M. B. (ed.), Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory, Vol. 11, Academic Press, Orlando, FL, pp. 37–95.
Schortman, E. M., and Urban, P. A. (1992). The place of interregional studies in archaeological thought. In Schortman, E. M., and Urban, P. A. (eds.), Resources, Power, and Interregional Interaction, Plenum Press, New York, pp. 3–15.
Schortman, E. M., and Urban, P. A. (2004). Modeling the roles of craft production in ancient political economies. Journal of Archaeological Research 12: 185–226.
Seeman, M. F. (1979). The Hopewell Interaction Sphere: The Evidence for Interregional Trade and Structural Complexity, Indiana Historical Society, Indianapolis.
Service, E. R. (1962). Primitive Social Organization: An Evolutionary Perspective, Random House, New York.
Service, E. R. (1972). Cultural Evolutionism: Theory in Practice, Holt, Reinhart and Winston, New York.
Shackleton, N., and Renfrew, C. M. (1970). Neolithic trade routes re-aligned by oxygen isotope analyses. Nature 228: 1062–1065.
Shapiro, W. (1968). The exchange of sister’s daughter’s daughters in northeast Arnhem land. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 24: 346–353.
Sharer, R. J. (1984). Lower Central America as seen from Mesoamerica. In Lange, F. W., and Stone, D. Z. (eds.), The Archaeology of Lower Central America, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, pp. 63–84.
Shepard, A. O. (1936). The technology of Pecos pottery. In Kidder, A. V., and Shepard, A. O. (eds.), The Pottery of Pecos , Vol. 2, Yale University Press, New Haven, CT, pp. 389–587.
Shoji, I. (1966). A note on the business combine in India. The Developing Economies 4: 367–380.
Sidrys, R. (1977) Mass-distance measures for the Maya obsidian trade. In Earle, T. K., and Ericson, J. E. (eds.), Exchange Systems in Prehistory, Academic Press, New York, pp. 91–108.
Siegel, P. E. (1992). Ideology, Power, and Social Complexity in Prehistoric Puerto Rico, Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, State University of New York, Binghamton.
Singer, C. A., and Ericson, J. E. (1977). Quarry analysis at Bodie Hills, Mono County, California: A case study. In Earle, T. K., and Ericson, J. E. (eds.), Exchange Systems in Prehistory, Academic Press, New York, pp. 171–190.
Sinopoli, C. M. (1988). The organization of craft production at Vijayanagara, South India. American Anthropologist 90: 550–597.
Sinopoli, C. M. (1994). Archaeology of empires. Annual Review of Anthropology 23: 159–180.
Sinopoli, C. M. (2003). The Political Economy of Craft Production: Crafting Empire in South India, c. 1350–1650, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Smith, T. R. (1987). Mycenaean Trade and Interaction in the West Central Mediterranean, 1600–1000 B.C. BAR International Series No. 371, Archaeopress, Oxford.
Specht, J. (1972). Evidence for early trade in northern Melanesia. Mankind 8: 310–312.
Spencer, G. W. (1988). Indian trade diasporas and Chola maritime expansion. Journal of Asian Studies 6: 1–13.
Stanish, C. (1992). Ancient Andean Political Economy, University of Texas Press, Austin.
Stanish, C. (2001). Regional research on the Inca. Journal of Archaeological Research 9: 213–242.
Stark, B. L. (1978). An ethnohistoric model for native economy and settlement patterns in southern Veracruz, Mexico. In Stark, B. L., and Voorhies, B. (eds.), Prehistoric Coastal Adaptations, Academic Press, New York, pp. 211–238.
Stark, B. L. (1991). Settlement Archaeology of Cerro de las Mesas, Veracruz, Mexico, Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los Angeles.
Stark, B. L. (2003). Cerro de las Mesas: Social and economic perspectives on a gulf center. In Sanders, W. T., Mastache, A. G., and Cobean, R. (eds.), El urbanismo en Mesoamérica/Urbanism in Mesoamerica, Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, Mexico City, pp. 391–426.
Stech, T., and Piggott, V. C. (1986). The metals trade in Southwest Asia in the third millennium B.C. Iraq 48: 39–64.
Steensgard, N. (1987). Indian Ocean networks and emerging world economy. In Chandra, S. (ed.), Indian Ocean: Explorations in History, Commerce and Politics, Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, New Delhi, pp. 125–150.
Stein, G. J. (1999). Rethinking World-Systems: Diasporas, Colonies, and Interaction in Uruk Mesopotamia, University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
Stein, G. J. (2002). Distinguished lecture in archaeology: From passive periphery to active agents: Emerging perspectives in the archaeology of interregional interactions. American Anthropologist 104: 903–916.
Stein, G. J. (ed.) (2005). The Archaeology of Colonial Encounters, School of American Research Press, Santa Fe, NM.
Stephen, S. J. (1995). The role of the Tamil Muslim mercantile community of the Marakkayars in the late medieval maritime trade on the Coromandel Coast: A study chiefly based on Portuguese sources 1506–1537. Islamic Culture 69: 59–71.
Stephen, S. J. (1997). The Coromandel Coast and Its Hinterland, Economy, Society and the Political System (A.D. 1500–1600), Manohar Publishers, New Delhi.
Steward, J. H. (1955). Theory of Culture Change, University of Illinois Press, Urbana.
Steward, J. H. (1958). Problems of cultural evolution. Evolution 12: 206–210.
Strathern, A. (1978). Tambu and Kina: “Profit,” exploitation and reciprocity in two New Guinea exchange systems. Mankind 11: 253–264.
Strathern, A. J. (1969). Finance and production: Two strategies in New Guinea highlands exchange systems. Oceania 40: 42–67.
Struever, S., and Houart, G. L. (1972). An analysis of the Hopewell interaction sphere. In Wilmsen, E. (ed.), Social Exchange and Interaction, Anthropological Papers No. 46, Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, pp. 47–80.
Sum, N. L. (2002). The “geogovernance” and “embeddedness” of cross border regional modes of growth: Some theoretical issues and the case of “greater China.” In Adaman, F., and Devine, P. (eds.), Economy and Society: Money, Capitalism and Transition, Black Rose Books, Montreal, pp. 248–282.
Tampoe, M. (1989). Maritime Trade between China and the West: An Archaeological Study of the Ceramics from Siraf (Persian Gulf), 8th–15th Centuries A.D., BAR International Series No. 555, Archaeopress, Oxford.
Terrell, J. E. (1986). Prehistory in the Pacific Islands, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Terrell, J. E., and Welsch, R. L. (1990). Trade networks, areal integration, and diversity along the north coast of New Guinea. Asian Perspectives 29: 155–165.
Thomas, K. (1975). An anthropology of religion and magic: II. Journal of Interdisciplinary History 6: 91–109.
Toll, H. W., Windes, T. C., and McKenna, P. J. (1980). Late ceramic patterns in Chaco Canyon: The pragmatics of modeling ceramic exchange. In Fry, R. E. (ed.), Models and Methods in Regional Exchange, Papers No. 1, Society for American Archaeology, Washington, DC, pp. 95–118.
Tosi, M., and Piperno, M. (1973). Lithic technology behind the ancient lapis lazuli trade. Expedition 16(1): 15–23.
Trigger, B. (2003). Understanding Early Civilizations, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Udovitch, A. L. (1967). Commercial techniques in early medieval Islamic trade. In Richards, D. S. (ed.), Islam and the Trade of Asia, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, pp. 37–62.
Udovitch, A. L. (1970). Partnership and Profit in Medieval Islam, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
Ukwu, U. I. (1967). The development of trade and marketing in Iboland. Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria 3: 647–662.
Underhill, A. P. (2002). Craft Production and Social Change in Northern China, Kluwer Academic, New York.
Upadhyaya, H. S. (1966). Craftsmen’s and tradesmen’s castes in Indian proverbs. Proverbium 4: 71–83.
Van Loon, M. (1977). The place of Urartu in first millennium B.C. trade. Iraq 39: 229–231.
Vanderwal, R. L. (1978). Exchange in prehistoric coastal Papua. Mankind 11: 416–428.
Vansina, J. (1962). Long-distance trade-routes in central Africa. Journal of African History 3: 375–390.
Veenhof, K. R. (1977). Some social effects of old Assyrian trade. Iraq 39: 109–118.
Wade, R. A. R. (1968). A traveling traders’ guild? Journal of The Gypsy Lore Society 47: 29–31.
Wallerstein, I. (1974). The Modern World System, Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the European World Economy in the Sixteenth Century, Academic Press, New York.
Wallerstein, I. (1979). The Ottoman empire and the capitalist world economy. Review 2: 389–400.
Wallerstein, I. (2004). World-Systems Analysis: An Introduction, Duke University Press, Durham, NC.
Webb, M. C. (1974). Exchange networks in prehistory. Annual Review of Anthropology 3: 357–383.
Webb, M. C. (1975). The flag follows trade: An essay on the necessary interaction of military and commercial factors in state formation. In Sabloff, J. A., and Lamberg-Karlovsky, C. C. (eds.), Ancient Civilization and Trade, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, pp. 155–210.
Weiner, A. B. (1992). Inalienable Possessions: The Paradox of Keeping-While-Giving, University of California Press, Berkeley.
Wells, P. S. (1984). Farms, Villages, and Cities: Commerce and Urban Origins in Late Prehistoric Europe, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY.
Wheatley, P. (1975). Satyanrta in Suvarnadvipa: From reciprocity to redistribution in ancient Southeast Asia. In Sabloff, J. A., and Lamberg-Karlovsky, C. C. (eds.), Ancient Civilization and Trade, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, pp. 227–284.
White, L. (1959). The Evolution of Culture, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Whitehouse, D. (1983). Maritime trade in the Gulf: The 11th and 12th centuries. World Archaeology 14: 328–334.
Whitehouse, D., and Williamson, A. (1973). Sassanian maritime trade. Iran 11: 29–49.
Whitmore, J. K. (1977). The opening of Southeast Asia: Trading patterns through the centuries. In Hutterer, K. L. (ed.), Economic Exchange and Social Interaction in Southeast Asia: Perspectives from Prehistory, History and Ethnography, Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, pp. 139–154.
Wilcox, D. R. (1979). The Hohokam regional system. In Rice, G. E., Wilcox, D. R., Rafferty, K., and Schoenwetter, J. (eds.), An Archaeological Test of Sites in the Gila Butte-Santan Region, Archaeological Research Papers No. 18, Arizona State University, Tempe, pp. 77–116.
Wilding, R. (1989). Coastal Bantu: Waswahili. In Wandibba, S., and Babour, J. (eds.), Kenya Pots and Potters, Oxford University Press, Nairobi, pp. 100–115.
Willey, G. R. (1953). A pattern of diffusion-acculturation. Southwestern Journal of Archaeology 9: 369–384.
Willey, G. R., and Lathrap, D. (1956). An archaeological classification of culture contact situations. In Wauchope, R. (ed.), Seminars in Archaeology: 1955, Memoirs of the Society for American Archaeology, Salt Lake City, UT, pp. 3–30.
Wilmsen, E. (ed.) (1972a). Social Exchange and Interactions, Anthropological Papers No. 46, Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
Wilmsen, E. (1972b). Introduction: The study of exchange as interaction. In Wilmsen, E. (ed.), Social Exchange and Interaction, Anthropological Papers No. 46, Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, pp. 1–4.
Wilson, C. M. (1977). Ethnic participation in the export of Thai rice: 1885–1890. In Hutterer, K. L. (ed.), Economic Exchange and Social Interaction in Southeast Asia: Perspectives from Prehistory, History and Ethnography, Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, pp. 245–274.
Wisseman, C. (1977). Markets and trade in Pre-Madjapahit Java. In Hutterer, K. L. (ed.), Economic Exchange and Social Interaction in Southeast Asia: Perspectives from Prehistory, History and Ethnography, Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, pp. 197–212.
Wolf, E. R. (1957). Closed corporate communities in Mesoamerica and central Java. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 13: 1–18.
Woodward, H. W. (1977). A Chinese silk depicted at Candi. In Hutterer, K. L. (ed.), Economic Exchange and Social Interaction in Southeast Asia: Perspectives from Prehistory, History and Ethnography, Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, pp. 233–244.
Woolf, G. (1992). Imperialism, empire and the integration of the Roman economy. World Archaeology 23: 283–293.
Wright, H. T. (1972). A consideration of interregional exchange in greater Mesopotamia: 4000–3000 B.C. In Wilmsen, E. (ed.), Social Exchange and Interaction, Anthropological Papers No. 46, Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, pp. 95–106.
Yengoyan, A. A. (1972). Ritual and exchange in aboriginal Australia: An adaptive interpretation of male initiation rites. In Wilmsen, E. (ed.), Social Exchange and Interaction, Anthropological Papers No. 46, Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, pp. 5–10.
Yoffee, N. (1979). The decline and rise of Mesopotamian civilization: An ethnoarchaeological perspective on the evolution of social complexity. American Antiquity 44: 5–35.
Yoffee, N. (1993). Mesopotamian interaction spheres. In Yoffee, N., and Clark, J. J. (eds.), Early Stages in the Evolution of Mesopotamian Civilization: Soviet Excavations in Northern Iraq, University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
Yoffee, N. (2004). Myths of the Archaic State: Evolution of the Earliest Cities, States, and Civilizations, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Yusuf, A. B. (1975). Capital formation and management among the Muslim Hausa traders of Kano, Nigeria. Africa 45: 167–182.
Zagarell, A. (1986). Trade, women, class, and society in ancient western Asia. Current Anthropology 27: 415–430.
Bibliography of recent literature
Abdullah, T. (2001). Merchants, Mamluks and Murder: The Political Economy of Trade in Eighteenth Century Basra, State University of New York Press, Albany.
Adaman, F., and Devine, P. (eds.) (2002). Economy and Society: Money, Capitalism and Transition, Black Rose Books, Montreal.
Adams, W. H., Bowers, P. M., and Mills, R. (2001). Commodity flow and national market access. Historical Archaeology 35: 73–107.
Adelman, J., and Aron, S. (1999). From borderlands to borders. American Historical Review 104: 1221–1239.
Agarwala, P. N. (2001). Comprehensive History of Business in India from 3000 B.C. to 2000 A.D., McGraw-Hill, New Delhi.
Algaze, G. (2001). Initial social complexity in southwestern Asia: The Mesopotamian advantage. Current Anthropology 42: 199–233.
Allen, S. J. (2000). In support of trade: Coastal site location and environmental transformation in early historical-period Malaysia and Thailand. Bulletin of The Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association 20: 62–78.
Anderson, A. (2000). Implications of prehistoric obsidian transfer in southern Polynesia. Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association 20: 117–123.
Andreau, J. (1999). Banking and Business in the Roman World, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Andrews, A. P. (2002). El antiguo puerto Maya de Conil. Estudios de Cultura Maya 22: 139–149.
Aoyama, K. (2001). Classic Maya state, urbanism and exchange: Chipped stone evidence of the Copan Valley and its hinterland. American Anthropologist 103: 346–360.
Bailey, D. W., and Mills, S. (eds.) (1998). The Archaeology of Value: Essays on Prestige and the Processes of Valuation, BAR International Series No. 730, Archaeopress, Oxford.
Baram, U., and Carroll, L. (eds.) (2000). A Historical Archaeology of the Ottoman Empire: Breaking New Ground, Kluwer Academic, New York.
Barrett, J. H., Locker, A. M., and Roberts, C. M. (2004). “Dark Age” economics revisited: The English fish bone evidence A.D. 600–1600. Antiquity 78: 618–636.
Basa, K. K. (1996). Archaeological approaches and ethnographic models for trade and exchange: A critical study. The Eastern Anthropologist 49: 109–138.
Baugh, T. G., and Ericson, J. E. (eds.) (1994). Prehistoric Exchange Systems in North America, Plenum Press, New York.
Bayman, J. M. (2002). Hohokam craft economies and the materialization of power. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 9: 69–95.
Becker, F. (2004). Traders, “big men” and prophets: Political continuity and crisis in the Maji Maji rebellion in southeast Tanzania. Journal of African History 45: 1–22.
Bellina, B. (1999). Wares in exchanges between the Indian sub-continent and Southeast Asia in proto-historical times: Notes on some archaeological markers. Bulletin de l’Ecole Francaise d’Extreme-Orient 86: 161–184.
Benes, J. (1996). Aerial survey of archaeological sites: Historical settlements and trade roads in the Prachatice region. Archeologicke Rozhledy 48: 247–249.
Bentley, R. A. (2000). Provenience analysis of pottery from Fijian hillforts: Preliminary implications for exchange within the archipelago. Archaeology in Oceania 35: 82–91.
Berlin, A. M. (1997). From monarchy to markets: The Phoenicians in Hellenistic Palestine. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 306: 75–88.
Bienkowski, P., and Van Der Steen, E. (2001). Tribes, trade, and towns: A new framework for the late Iron Age in southern Jordan and the Negev. Bulletin of The American Schools of Oriental Research 323: 21–47.
Boenke, N. (2005). Organic resources at the Iron Age Durrnberg salt-mine (Hallein, Austria): Long-distance trade or local sources? Archaeometry 47: 471–483.
Boone, J. L., and Benco, N. L. (1999). Islamic settlement in North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula. Annual Review of Anthropology 28: 51–71.
Bradburd, D. (1997). Nomads and their trade partners: Historical context and trade relations in southwest Iran 1840–1975. American Ethnologist 24: 895–909.
Bredeloup, S. (1991). Long-distance traders stop in Dimbokro, Ivory Coast. Cahiers d’Etudes Africaines 31: 475–486.
Brockmann, A. (2000). Trade under the sign of the feathered serpent: Mesoamerica’s path into the second millennium. Ethnographisch-Archaologische Zeitschrift 41: 561–580.
Brown, I. W. (1999). Salt manufacture and trade from the perspective of Avery Island. Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology 24: 113–151.
Bulmer-Thomas, V. (2001). Regional integration in Latin America and the Caribbean. Bulletin of Latin American Research 20: 360–369.
Burmeister, S. (2000). Archaeology and migration: Approaches to an archaeological proof of migration. Current Anthropology 41: 539–567.
Byrne, R. (2003). Early Assyrian contacts with Arabs and the impact on Levantine vassal tribute. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 331: 11–25.
Callaghan, R. T. (2003). Prehistoric trade between Ecuador and West Mexico: A computer simulation of coastal voyages. Antiquity 77: 796–804.
Cartledge, P. (1998). The economy (economies) of ancient Greece. Dialogos 5: 4–24.
Cazzella, A., Levi, S. T., and Williams, J. L. (1997). The petrographic examination of Impasto pottery from Vivara and the Aeolian Islands: A case for inter-island pottery exchange in the Bronze Age of southern Italy. Origini 21: 187–205.
Chakraborti, R. (ed.) (2001). Trade in Early India, Oxford University Press, New Delhi.
Chami, F. A. (2002). East Africa and the Middle East relationship from the first millennium B.C. to about 1500 A.D. Journal des Africanistes 72: 21–37.
Chami, F. A., and Msemwa, P. J. (1997). A new look at culture and trade on the Azanian coast. Current Anthropology 38: 673–677.
Chapman, J., and Hamerrow, H. (eds.) (1997). Migrations and Invasions in Archaeological Explanation, BAR International Series No. 664, Archaeopress, Oxford.
Charvat, P. (2002). Samo, the Frankish merchant, and the Sasanian conquest of Arabia. Archeologicke Rozhledy 54: 903–907.
Chase-Dunn, C., and Hall, T. D. (1998). World-systems in North America: Networks, rise and fall and pulsations of trade in stateless systems. American Indian Culture and Research Journal 22: 23–72.
Chaudhury, S., and Morineau, M. (1999). Merchants, Companies, and Trade: Europe and Asia in the Early Modern Era, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Chauhan, G. C. (1998). Inland and foreign trade as seen in the Jatakas. Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute 79: 171–177.
Constantin, M. (2002). Social categories and trading specialisation in a Bucharest marketplace. Etudes et Documents Balkaniques et Mediterraneens 25: 25–29.
Crawford, H. (2005). Mesopotamia and the Gulf: The history of a relationship. Iraq 67: 41–46.
Dalsheimer, N., and Manguin, P. Y. (1998). Mitred Visnus and the trade networks in Southeast Asia: New archaeological data on the 1st millennium A.D. Bulletin de l’Ecole Francaise d’Extreme-Orient 85: 87–123.
Danby, C. (2002). The curse of the modern: A post Keynesian critique of the gift/exchange dichotomy. Research in Economic Anthropology 21: 13–42.
Das Gupta, A., and Das Gupta, U. (2001). The World of the Indian Ocean Merchant 1500–1800: Collected Essays of Ashin Das Gupta, Oxford University Press, New Delhi.
De Souza, P. (2000). Western Mediterranean ports in the Roman Empire (first century B.C. to sixth century A.D.). Journal of Mediterranean Studies 10: 229–254.
Diouf, M. (2000). The Senegalese Murid trade diaspora and the making of a vernacular cosmopolitanism. Public Culture 12: 679–702.
Duncan, C. M., and Tandy, D. W. (eds.) (1994). From Political Economy to Anthropology: Situating Economic Life in Past Societies, Black Rose Books, Montreal.
Dutta, S. (1997). Family Business in India, Sage Publications, New Delhi.
Earle, T. K. (ed.) (2002). Bronze Age Economies: The Beginnings of Political Economies, Westview Press, Boulder, CO.
Eichhorn, B., Hendricks, S., Riemer, H., and Stern, B. (2005). Desert roads and transport vessels from late Roman-Coptic times in the eastern Sahara. Journal of African Archaeology 3: 213–229.
Ellen, R. (1996). Arab traders and land settlers in the Geser-Gorom Archipelago. Indonesia Circle 70: 237–252.
Emerson, T. E., and Hughes, R. E. (2001). De-mything the Cahokia catlinite trade. Plains Anthropologist 46: 149–161.
Falzon, M. A. (2004). Cosmopolitan Connections: The Sindhi Diaspora 1860–2000, Brill, Leiden.
Feinman, G. M., and Nicholas, L. M. (eds.) (2004). Archaeological Perspectives on Political Economies, University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.
Fitzgerald, R. T., Jones, T. L., and Schroth, A. (2005). Ancient long-distance trade in western North America: New AMS radiocarbon dates from southern California. Journal of Archaeological Science 32: 423–434.
Flecker, M. (2001). A ninth-century A.D. Arab or Indian shipwreck in Indonesia: First evidence for direct trade with China. World Archaeology 32: 335–354.
Floor, W., and Clawson, P. (2000). Safavid Iran’s search for silver and gold. International Journal of Middle East Studies 32: 345–368.
Fox, W. A. (2004). The north-south copper axis. Southeastern Archaeology 23: 85–97.
Francis Jr., P. (2002). The bead trade around the world (and what it can tell us). The Margaretologist: The Journal of the Center for Bead Research 14: 3–12.
Frank, A. G. (1998). Reorient: Global Economy in the Asian Age, University of California Press, Berkeley.
Fredericksen, C. (1997). The maritime distribution of Bismarck Archipelago obsidian and island Melanesian prehistory. The Journal of The Polynesian Society 106: 375–393.
Gaimster, D. (2005). A parallel history: The archaeology of Hanseatic urban culture in the Baltic c. 1200–1600. World Archaeology 37: 408–423.
Gasson, R. A. (2000). Quiripas and Mostacillas: The evolution of shell beads as a medium of exchange in northern South America. Ethnohistory 47: 582–609.
Gil, M. (2003). The Jewish merchant in the light of the eleventh century Geniza documents. Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 46: 273–319.
Gilboa, A. (2005). Sea peoples and Phoenicians along the southern Phoenician coast – a reconciliation: An interpretation of Sikila (SKL) material culture. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 337: 47–78.
Godelier, M. (1999). The Enigma of the Gift, Polity Press, Cambridge, UK.
Graeber, D. (2001). Towards an Anthropological Theory of Value, Palgrave, New York.
Gratz, T. (2004). Gold trading networks and the creation of trust: A case study from northern Benin. Africa 74: 146–172.
Gronenborn, D. (2001). Beads and the emergence of the Islamic slave trade in the southern Chad Basin (Nigeria). Bead Forum 38: iv–xi.
Guderjan, T. H. (1995). Maya settlement and trade of Ambergris Caye, Belize. Ancient Mesoamerica 6: 147–159.
Gutman, P. (2001). The Martaban trade: An examination of the literature from the seventh century until the eighteenth century. Asian Perspectives 40: 108–118.
Haaland, R., and Msuya, C. S. (2000). Pottery production, iron working, and trade in the Early Iron Age: The case of Dakawa, east-central Tanzania. Azania 35: 75–106.
Hall, M., and Minyaev, S. (2002). Chemical analyses of Xiong-Nu pottery: A preliminary study of exchange and trade on the inner Asian steppes. Journal of Archaeological Science 29: 135–144.
Hamilton, S. (2000). Dynamics of social complexity in early nineteenth-century British fur-trade posts. International Journal of Historical Archaeology 4: 217–273.
Hann, C. (ed.) (1998). Property Relations: Renewing the Anthropological Tradition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Hann, C., and Hart, K. (2006). A short history of economic anthropology. Paper prepared for the workshop “Anthropological Approaches to the Economy,” Halle, Germany.
Hanna, N. (1998). Making Big Money in 1600: The Life and Times of Isma’il Abu Taqiyya, Egyptian merchant, Syracuse University Press, Syracuse, NY.
Harrisson, B. (2003). The ceramic trade across the South China Sea, c. A.D. 1350–1650. Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 76: 99–114.
Hartnett, A. (2004). The politics of the pipe: Clay pipes and tobacco consumption in Galway, Ireland. International Journal of Historical Archaeology 8: 133–147.
Hawley, M. F., and Stein, M. (2005). An update on European contact goods from the Lower Walnut settlement, Kansas. Plains Anthropologist 50: 73–76.
Helms, M. W. (1993). Craft and the Kingly Ideal: Art, Trade and Power, University of Texas Press, Austin.
Heng, D., and Soon, T. (1999). Temasik as an international and regional trading port in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries: A reconstruction based on recent archaeological data. Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 72: 113–124.
Hirth, K. G. (1996). Political economy and archaeology: Perspectives on exchange and production. Journal of Archaeological Research 4: 203–239.
Hodge, M. G., and Smith, M. E. (eds.) (1994). Economies and Polities in the Aztec Realm, Institute for Mesoamerican Studies, State University of New York Press, Albany.
Horton, M., and Middleton, J. (2000). The Swahili: The Social Landscape of a Mercantile Society, Blackwell, Oxford.
Hudson, M. J. (2004). The perverse realities of change: World system incorporation and the Okhotsk culture of Hokkaido. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 23: 290–308.
Insoll, T., and Shaw, T. (1997). Gao and Igbo-Ukwu: Beads, interregional trade, and beyond. African Archaeological Review 14: 9–23.
Insoll, T., Polya, D. A., Bhan, K., Irving, D., and Jarvis, K. (2004). Towards an understanding of the carnelian bead trade from western India to sub-Saharan Africa: The application of UV-LA-ICP-MS to carnelian from Gujarat, India, and West Africa. Journal of Archaeological Science 31: 1161–1173.
Isaac, B. L. (2005). Karl Polanyi. In Carrier, J. (ed.), A Handbook of Economic Anthropology, Edward Elgar, Aldershot, UK, pp. 14–25.
Jalloh, A. (1999). African Entrepreneurship: Muslim Fula Merchants in Sierra Leone, Center for International Studies, Ohio University Press, Athens.
Janetski, J. C. (2002). Trade in Fremont society: Contexts and contrasts. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 21: 344–370.
Juli, H., Trimble, J., and Monce, M. (2003). Ceramics and trade in late prehistoric southern New England: A proton induced X-ray emission (PIXE) analysis of Connecticut prehistoric ceramics. Northeast Anthropology 65: 31–52.
Junker, L. L. (1994). Trade competition, conflict, and political transformations in sixth- to sixteenth-century Philippine chiefdoms. Asian Perspectives 33: 229–260.
Kamalov, A. K. (2000). On trade relations between the Uigur Khanate and China during the period of Tang dynasty. Izvestiia Natsional’noi Akademii Nauk Respubliki Kazakhstan 229: 16–25.
Karafet, T. M., Lansing, J. S., Redd, A. J., Reznikova, S., and Watkins, J. C. (2005). Balinese Y-chromosome perspective on the peopling of Indonesia: Genetic contributions from pre-neolithic hunter-gatherers, Austronesian farmers, and Indian traders. Human Biology 77: 93–114.
Kelly, K. G. (1997). The archaeology of African-European interaction: Investigating the social roles of trade, traders, and the use of space in the seventeenth- and eighteenth-century Hueda kingdom, Republic of Benin. World Archaeology 28: 351–369.
Kinoshita, N. (2003). Shell trade and exchange in the prehistory of the Ryukyu Archipelago. Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association 23: 67–72.
Kozuch, L. (2002). Olivella beads from Spiro and the Plains. American Antiquity 67: 697–709.
Kusimba, C. M., and Kusimba, S. B. (2000). Hinterland and cities: Archaeological investigations of economy and trade in Tsavo, south-eastern Kenya. Nyame Akuma 54: 13–24.
Kusimba, C. M., and Kusimba, S. B. (eds.) (2003). East African Archaeology: Foragers, Potters, Smiths and Traders, Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.
Kusimba, C. M., and Oka, R. C. (2008). Trade and polity in East Africa: Examining consensus-building strategies for sustaining overseas-hinterland commerce in the East African trade complex. In Falola, T. (ed.), Empires and Slavery in the Atlantic World: Essays in Honor of Robin Law, Indiana University Press, Bloomington.
Kusimba, S. (2003). African Foragers, Altamira Press, Walnut Creek, CA.
Kuznetsov, V. D. (2000). Athens and Bosporus: Grain trade. Rossiiskaia Arkheologiia 1: 107–120.
Labazee, P. (1996). African entrepreneurs, succession and transmission of inheritance: Some remarks on the case of Nigerian tradesmen. Journal des Anthropologues 66: 97–114.
Lahiri, N. (ed.) (2000). The Decline and Fall of the Indus Civilization, Orient Longman, Bangalore, India.
Lamouroux, C. (2002). Trade and bureaucracy in China under the Sung (10th–12th century). Etudes Rurales 161–162: 183–213.
Lapham, H. A., and Johnson, W. C. (2002). Protohistoric Monongahela trade relations: Evidence from the Foley farm phase glass beads. Archaeology of Eastern North America 30: 97–120.
Lau, G. F. (2005). Core-periphery relations in the Recuay hinterlands: Economic interaction at Chinchawas, Peru. Antiquity 79: 78–99.
Lee, J. (1999). Trade and economy in pre-industrial East Asia, c.1500–c.1800: East Asia in the age of global integration. Journal of Asian Studies 58: 2–26.
Lemire, B. (2003). Domesticating the exotic: Floral culture and the East India calico trade with England, c. 1600–1800. Textile: The Journal of Cloth and Culture 1: 65–85.
Levi, S. C. (2002). Hindus beyond the Hindu Kush: Indians in the central Asian slave trade. Journal of The Royal Asiatic Society 12: 277–288.
Lindh De Montoya, M. (1999). Markets as mirror or model: How traders reconfigure economic and social transactions in rural economies. Ethnos 64: 57–81.
Little, W. E. (2002). Selling strategies and social relations among mobile Maya handicrafts vendors. Research in Economic Anthropology 21: 61–95.
Liverani, M. (2001). Looking for some of the southern frontiers of the Garamantes. Sahara 12: 31–44.
Lombard, D., and Aubin, J. (eds.) (2000). Asian Merchants and Businessmen in the Indian Ocean and the China Sea, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Lombard, M. (2004). Golden Age of Islam, Marcus Wiener, Princeton, NJ.
Mackerras, C. (2000). Uygur-Tang relations, 744–840. Central Asian Survey 19: 223–234.
Maeir, A. M. (2000). The political and economic status of MB II Hazor and MB II trade: An inter- and intra-regional view. Palestine Exploration Quarterly 132: 37–58.
Mainfort Jr., R. C., Cogswell, J. W., O’Brien, M. J., Neff, H., and Glascock, M. D. (1997). Neutron activation analysis of pottery from Pinson Mounds and nearby sites in western Tennessee: Local production vs. long-distance importation. Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology 22: 43–68.
Mann, R. (2000). The history of beads in East Africa. Kenya Past and Present 31: 36–47.
Manson, J. L. (1998). Trans-Mississippi trade and travel: The Buffalo Plains and beyond. Plains Anthropologist 43: 385–400.
Maran, J. (2004). The spreading of objects and ideas in the Late Bronze Age Eastern Mediterranean: Two case examples from the Argolid of the 13th and 12th centuries B.C. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 336: 11–30.
Markovits, C. (2001). The Global World of the South Asian Merchant, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Massing, A. W. (2000). The Wangara: An old Soninke diaspora in West Africa? Cahiers d’Etudes Africaines 158: 281–308.
Masson, M. A., and Chaya, H. (2000). Obsidian trade connections at the Postclassic Maya site of Laguna de On, Belize. Lithic Technology 25: 135–144.
Master, D. M. (2003). Trade and politics: Ashkelon’s balancing act in the seventh century B.C.E. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 330: 47–64.
Mathien, F. J. (2001). The organization of turquoise production and consumption by the prehistoric Chacoans. American Antiquity 66: 103–118.
Mattingly, D. J., and Salmon, J. (eds.) (2001). Economies Beyond Agriculture in the Classical World, Routledge, London.
Matveeva, N. P. (1997). Trade contacts between western Siberia and central Asia in the Early Iron Age. Rossiiskaia Arkheologiia 2: 63–77.
McKillop, H. I. (2002). Salt: White Gold of the Ancient Maya, University Press of Florida, Gainesville.
McKillop, H. I. (2004). The Ancient Maya: New Perspectives, ABC-CLIO, Santa Barbara, CA.
McKinnon, E. E. (1996). Mediaeval Tamil involvement in northern Sumatra, C11–C14 (the gold and resin trade). Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 69: 85–99.
McNiven, I. J. (1998). Enmity and amity: Reconsidering stone-headed club (Gabagaba) procurement and trade in Torres Strait. Oceania 69: 94–115.
McRobbie, K., and Polanyi Levitt, K. (eds.) (2000). Karl Polanyi in Vienna, Black Rose Books, Montreal.
Merkel, J., and Velarde, M. I. (1999). Naipes (axe money): A pre-Hispanic currency in Peru. Minerva 11(1): 52–55.
Middleton, J. (2003). Merchants: An essay in historical ethnography. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 9: 509–526.
Möller, A. (2000). Naukratis: Trade in Archaic Greece, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Moore, J. (2001). Evaluating five models of human colonization. American Anthropologist 103: 395–408.
Morrison, K. D. (1997). Commerce and culture in South Asia: Perspectives from archaeology and history. Annual Review of Anthropology 26: 87–108.
Mukherjee, R., and Subramanian, S. (eds.) (1998). Politics and Trade in the Indian Ocean: Essays in Honour of Ashin Das Gupta, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Mukund, K. (1999). The Trading World of the Tamil Merchant: The Evolution of Merchant Capitalism on the Coromandel Coast, Orient Longman, Hyderabad, India.
Mutoro, H. (1998). Pre-colonial trading systems of the East African interior. In Connah, G. (ed.), Transformations in Africa: Essays on Africa’s Later Past, Leicester University Press, Leicester, UK, pp. 186–203.
Nicolini, B. (2003). The western Indian Ocean as cultural corridor: Makran, Oman and Zanzibar through nineteenth century European accounts and reports. Bulletin of the Middle East Studies Association of North America 37: 20–49.
Nieves Zedeno, M. (1998). Defining material correlates for ceramic circulation in the prehistoric Puebloan Southwest. Journal of Anthropological Research 54: 461–476.
Oka, R. C. (2005). Challenging the classic “colonial” landscape: Pre-colonial urban transitions in East Africa and South Asia. Paper presented at the 105th Annual Meeting of the American Anthropological Association, Washington, DC.
Padgett, J. F., and McLean, P. (2006). Organizational invention and elite transformation: The birth of partnership in Renaissance Florence. American Journal of Sociology 111: 1463–1568.
Pagratis, G. D. (2002). Greek commercial shipping from the fifteenth to the seventeenth century literature review and research. Journal of Mediterranean Studies 12: 411–433.
Pankhurst, R. (1998). Across the Red Sea and Indian Ocean: A history of Ethiopian-Indian relations from ancient times to the end of the eighteenth century. Mare Erythraeum 2: 117–126.
Perttula, T. K., Hawley, M. F., and Scott, F. W. (2001). Caddo trade ceramics. Southeastern Archaeology 20: 154–172.
Phillips, C. (1998). Arabia, the Periplus and trade with India. Mare Erythraeum 2: 168.
Pope, M., and Pollock, S. (1995). Trade, tools, and tasks: A study of Uruk chipped stone industries. Research in Economic Anthropology 16: 227–265.
Pouwels, R. L. (2002). Eastern Africa and the Indian Ocean to 1800: Reviewing relations in historical perspective. International Journal of African Historical Studies 35: 385–425.
Prakash, O. (1998a). European Commercial Enterprise in Pre-colonial India, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Prakash, O. (1998b). The trading world of India and Southeast Asia in the early modern period. Archipel 56: 31–42.
Preece, C. (2000). Marsa-El-Brega: A fatal port of call: Evidence for shipwreck, anchorage and trade in antiquity in the Gulf of Sirte. Libyan Studies 31: 29–57.
Ratnagar, S. (2001). The Bronze Age: Unique instance of a pre-industrial world system? Current Anthropology 42: 351–379.
Ratnagar, S. (2004). Trading Encounters from the Euphrates to the Indus in the Bronze Age, Oxford University Press, New Delhi.
Ray, H. P. (2003). The Archaeology of Seafaring in Ancient South Asia, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Ray, H. P., and Salles, J. F. (eds.) (1998). Tradition and Archaeology: Early Maritime Contacts in the Indian Ocean, Manohar, New Delhi.
Reed, C. M. (2003). Maritime Traders in the Ancient Greek World, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Ricks, T. (2001). Slaves and slave trading in Shi’i Iran, A.D. 1500–1900. Journal of Asian and African Studies 36: 407–418.
Rivers, P. J. (2004). Monsoon rhythms and trade patterns: Ancient times east of Suez. Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 77: 59–93.
Roopnaraine, T. (2001). Constrained trade and creative exchange on the Barima River, Guyana. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 7: 51–66.
Rosen, S. A. (1997). Beyond milk and meat: Lithic evidence for economic specialization in the early Bronze Age pastoral periphery in the Levant. Lithic Technology 22: 99–109.
Rosen, S. A., Tykot, R. H., and Gottesman, M. (2005). Long distance trinket trade: Early Bronze Age obsidian from Negev. Journal of Archaeological Science 32: 775–784.
Ruwitah, A. R. (1999). Kupakasa: Pre-colonial cotton production and trade in the Zambezi and Save Valleys. Zimbabwea 7: 3–42.
Saitowitz, S. J., and Reid, D. L. (2001). Early Indian Ocean glass bead trade between Egypt and Malaysia: A pilot study. Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association 21: 119–123.
Salmon, C. (2002). Srivijaya, la Chine, et les marchands chinoise (Xe-Xiies): Quelques reflexions sur la societe de ‘empire Sumatrais. Archipel 63: 257–258.
Satherm, C. (2002). Commodity trade, gift exchange and the history of maritime nomadism in southeastern Sabah. Nomadic Peoples (n.s.) 6: 20–44.
Seidenberg, D. (1996). Mercantilist Adventurers, Vikas Publications, New Delhi.
Shorter Jr., G. W. (2002). Status and trade at Port Dauphin. Historical Archaeology 36: 135–142.
Shulsky, L. R. (2002). Chinese porcelain at old Mobile. Historical Archaeology 36: 97–104.
Sidebotham, S. E., and Wendrich, W. Z. (1998). Berenike: Archaeological fieldwork at a Ptolemaic-Roman port on the Red Sea coast of Egypt: 1994–1998. Sahara 10: 85–96.
Sifneos, E. (2005). “Cosmopolitanism” as a feature of the Greek commercial diaspora. History and Anthropology 16: 97–111.
Skubnevskii, V. A., and Goncharov, I. U. M. (2002). Siberian merchants in the latter half of the nineteenth century. Sibirica: Journal of Siberian Studies 2: 21–42.
Sloan, N. A. (2003). Evidence of California-area abalone shell in Haida trade and culture. Canadian Journal of Archaeology 27: 273–286.
Smith, M. E. (2003). Comercio durante el Posclasico de ceramica decorada: Malinalco, Toluca, Guerrero y Morelos. Arqueologia 29: 63–84.
Stahl, A. B., and Stahl, P. W. (2003). Ivory production and consumption in Ghana in the early second millennium A.D. Antiquity 78: 86–101.
Stanish, C. (1997). Non-market imperialism in the pre-Hispanic Americas: The Inca occupation of the Titicaca Basin. Latin American Antiquity 8: 195–216.
Steel, D. (1999). Trade goods and Jivaro warfare: The Shuar 1850–1957, and the Achuar. Ethnohistory 46: 745–746.
Strazicich, N. M. (1998). Clay sources, pottery production, and regional economy in Chachihuites, Mexico, A.D. 200–900. Latin American Antiquity 9: 259–274.
Sutherland, H. (2000). Trepang and Wangkang: The China trade of eighteenth-century Makassar c. 1720s–1840s. Bijdragen Tot De Taal-, Land- En Volkenkunde 156: 635–654.
Sutton, J. E. G. (2001). Igbo-Ukwu and the Nile. African Archaeological Review 18: 49–62.
Terrell, J. E. (1999). Exploring the entangled bank: Systematic research on the Sepik Coast. Paper presented at the 99th Annual Meeting of the American Anthropological Association, Chicago, IL.
Tezuka, K. (1998). Long-distance trade networks and shipping in the Ezo region. Arctic Anthropology 35: 350–360.
Thomas, L. A., and Ray, J. H. (2002). Exchange at the Dahlman site (2LA259), a late prehistoric Neosho phase settlement in southwest Missouri. Plains Anthropologist 47: 207–229.
Tomber, R. (2000). Indo-Roman trade: The ceramic evidence from Egypt. Antiquity 74: 624–631.
Torlanbaeva, K. U. (2000). Relations of war and trade: Mechanisms, reasons and consequences. Izvestiia Natsional’noi Akademii Nauk Respubliki Kazakhstan 229: 25–31.
Torrence, R., and Summerhayes, G. R. (1997). Sociality and the short distance trader: Intra-regional obsidian exchange in the Willaumez region, Papua New Guinea. Archaeology in Oceania 32: 74–84.
Trubitt, M. B. D. (2003). The production and exchange of marine shell prestige goods. Journal of Archaeological Research 11: 243–277.
Van der Grijp, P. (2003). Between gifts and commodities: Commercial enterprise and the trader’s dilemma on Wallis (‘Uvea). The Contemporary Pacific 15: 277–307.
Vanderwal, R. (2004). Early historical sources for the top western islands in the Western Torres Strait exchange network. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 3: 257–270.
Vanpool, T. L., Vanpool, C. S., Antillon, R. C., Leonard, R. D., and Harmon, M. J. (2000). Flaked stone and social interaction in the Casas Grandes region, Chihuahua, Mexico. Latin American Antiquity 11: 163–174.
Varvarovskii, I. U. E. (2000). On the “theory of two sarais” and the quest of localisation of the town of Giulistan. Arkheologischeskie Vesti 7: 251–265.
Vasiliauskas, E. (1999). The trading ways and centres of Semigallia in the 8th–12th centuries. Lietuvos Archeologija 18: 79–99.
Vassallo, C. (1999). Some sources for the history of maritime trade in Malta. Journal of Mediterranean Studies 9: 14–17.
Vellanoweth, R. L. (2001). AMS radiocarbon dating and shell bead chronologies: Middle Holocene trade and interaction in western North America. Journal of Archaeological Science 28: 941–950.
Walmsey, A. (2000). Production, exchange and regional trade in the Islamic east Mediterranean: Old structures, new systems? In Hansen, I. L., and Wickham, C. (eds.), The Long Eighth Century, Brill, Leiden, pp. 265–343.
Ward, C. (2003). Pomegranates in eastern Mediterranean contexts during the late Bronze Age. World Archaeology 34: 529–541.
White, J. P., and Harris, M. N. (1997). Changing sources: Early Lapita period obsidian in the Bismarck Archipelago. Archaeology in Oceania 32: 97–107.
Yacobaccio, H. D., Escola, P. S., Pereyra, F. X., Lazzari, M., and Glascock, M. D. (2004). Quest for ancient routes: Obsidian sourcing research in northwestern Argentina. Journal of Archaeological Science 31: 193–204.
Yellin, J., Levy, T. E., and Yorke, M. R. (1996). New evidence on prehistoric trade routes: The obsidian evidence from Gilat, Israel. Journal of Field Archaeology 23: 361–368.
Yvon-Tran, F. (2001). Craft industry and local commerce in pre-modern Vietnam from the 11th to the 19th century: The example of the village agglomeration of Phu Ninh (Kinh Ba’c region). Bulletin de l’Ecole Francaise d’Extreme-Orient 88: 217–247.
Zolotarev, M. I. (1996). Trade communications of the Chersonese to Scythia at the end of the 4th and early 3rd century B.C. Arkheolohiia 8: 79–84.
Acknowledgments
A brief meeting with Gary Feinman at the 1997 SAA annual meeting was followed by an invitation to contribute an article to the Journal of Archaeological Research on the archaeology of trading systems. In 1999, Rahul Oka joined the East African research team and hence began a worldwide survey of the literature of trade. Our initial idea was to write a paper specific to our geographic research area, but it immediately dawned on us that the task at hand would be better addressed at a global level, given the nature of the subject matter. We truly appreciate and will remain indebted to Gary and Linda Nicholas for their patience and encouragement as we struggled with various approaches for addressing the issues of trade within archaeology. We thank the five anonymous reviewers and Carla Sinopoli for their careful, albeit critical, reading and commentary on the first draft. We also thank Larry Keeley, Laura Junker, John Terrell, Sylvia Vatuk, Ian Kuijt, Agustin Fuentes, and Carolyn Nordstrom for various discussions on the nature of trade and exchange. We thank Heather Frost for her work on the bibliography. We are truly indebted to our colleague and mentor Ben Bronson for the many conversations we had on this topic; Ben’s encyclopedic knowledge and mastery of these issues is unrivaled. We are privileged to have spent the past 14 years in his company. Ben retired at the end of 2007; we dedicate this article and its sequel to Dr. Bennett Bronson, our colleague, mentor, and teacher.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Oka, R., Kusimba, C.M. The Archaeology of Trading Systems, Part 1: Towards a New Trade Synthesis. J Archaeol Res 16, 339–395 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10814-008-9023-5
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10814-008-9023-5