Skip to main content
Log in

Mothers’ Parenting Behaviors in Families of School-Aged Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: An Observational and Questionnaire Study

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Although parents of children with ASD face specific challenges in parenting, only a few studies have empirically investigated parenting behaviors among these parents. The current study examined differences in parenting behaviors between mothers of school-aged children with ASD (n = 30) and mothers of typically developing children (n = 39), using both an observational measure and a self-report questionnaire. Results indicated that mothers of children with ASD obtained significantly lower scores on Sensitivity and Provision of structure as measured during the observation. They reported significantly higher scores on Material rewarding and Adapting the environment on the questionnaire. When controlling for parenting stress, the group differences on Sensitivity and Material rewarding did not remain significant.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abidin, R. R. (1983). Parenting Stress Index: Manual. Charlottesville: Pediatric Psychology Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Abidin, R. R. (1992). The determinants of parenting behavior. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 21, 407–412. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp2104_12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text revision). Washington, DC: APA.

  • Baker, J. K., Messinger, D. S., Lyons, K. K., & Grantz, C. J. (2010). A pilot study of maternal sensitivity in the context of emergent autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40, 988–999. doi:10.1007/s10803-010-0948-4.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barber, B. K., Stolz, H. E., & Olsen, J. A. (2005). Parental support, psychological control, and behavioral control: Assessing relevance across time, culture, and method. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 70, 1–137.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bayat, M. (2007). Evidence of resilience in families of children with autism. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 51, 702–714. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2788.2007.00960.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beurkens, N. M., Hobson, J. A., & Hobson, R. P. (2013). Autism severity and qualities of parent–child relations. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43, 168–178. doi:10.1007/s10803-012-1562-4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blacher, J., Baker, B. L., & Kaladjian, A. (2013). Syndrome specificity and mother–child interactions: Examining positive and negative parenting across contexts and time. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43, 761–774. doi:10.1007/s10803-012-1605-x.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Constantino, J. N., Davis, S. A., Todd, R. D., Schindler, M. K., Gross, M. M., Brophy, S. L., et al. (2003). Validation of a brief quantitative measure of autistic traits: Comparison of the social responsiveness scale with the autism diagnostic interview-revised. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 33, 427–433. doi:10.1023/A:1025014929212.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • de Brock, A., Vermulst, A., Gerris, J., & Abedin, R. R. (1992). NOSI: Nijmeegse Ouderlijke Stress Index. Lisse, NL: Swets & Zeitlinger.

    Google Scholar 

  • De la Marche, W., Noens, I., Luts, J., Scholte, E., Van Huffel, S., & Steyaert, J. (2012). Quantitative autism traits in first degree relatives: Evidence for the broader autism phenotype in fathers, but not in mothers and siblings. Autism, 16, 247–260. doi:10.1177/1362361311421776.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deater-Deckard, K. (1998). Parenting stress and child adjustment: Some old hypotheses and new questions. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 5, 314–332. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2850.1998.tb00152.x.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deater-Deckard, K. (2005). Parenting stress and children’s development: Introduction to the special issue. Infant and Child Development, 14, 111–115. doi:10.1002/icd.383.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dolev, S., Oppenheim, D., Koren-Karie, N., & Yirmiya, N. (2009). Emotional availability in mother–child interaction: The case of children with autism spectrum disorders. Parenting Science and Practice, 9, 183–197. doi:10.1080/15295190902844332.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Doussard-Roosevelt, J. A., Joe, C. M., Bazhenova, O. V., & Porges, S. W. (2003). Mother–child interaction in autistic and nonautistic children: Characteristics of maternal approach behaviors and child social responses. Development and Psychopathology, 15, 277–295. doi:10.1017/S0954579403000154.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Galambos, N. L., Barker, E. T., & Almeida, D. M. (2003). Parents do matter: Trajectories of change in externalizing and internalizing problems in early adolescence. Child Development, 74(2), 578–594. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.7402017.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gardner, F. (2000). Methodological issues in the direct observation of parent–child interaction: Do observational findings reflect the natural behavior of participants? Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 3(3), 185–198. doi:10.1023/A:1009503409699.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gerard, A. B. (1994). Parent–child relationship inventory (PCRI) manual. Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gotham, K., Pickles, A., & Lord, C. (2009). Standardizing ADOS scores for a measure of severity in autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 39, 693–705. doi:10.1007/s10803-008-0674-3.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gotham, K., Risi, S., Pickles, A., & Lord, C. (2007). The Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule: Revised algorithms for improved diagnostic validity. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disabilities, 37, 613–627. doi:10.1007/s10803-006-0280-1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grolnick, W., Frodi, A., & Bridges, L. (1984). Maternal control style and the mastery motivation of one-year-olds. Infant Mental Health Journal, 5, 72–82. doi:10.1002/1097-0355(198422)5:2<72:AID-IMHJ2280050203>3.0.CO;2-O.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grusec, J. E., & Davidov, M. (2010). Integrating different perspectives on socialization theory and research: A domain-specific approach. Child Development, 81, 687–709. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01426.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hartley, S. L., Barker, E. T., Seltzer, M. M., Floyd, F., Greenberg, J., Orsmond, G., & Bolt, D. (2010). The relative risk and timing of divorce in families of children with an autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Family Psychology, 24, 449–457. doi:10.1037/a0019847.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, S. A., & Watson, S. L. (2013). The impact of parenting stress: A meta-analysis of studies comparing the experience of parenting stress in parents of children with and without autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43, 629–642. doi:10.1007/s10803-012-1604-y.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ingersoll, B., & Hambrick, D. Z. (2011). The relationship between the broader autism phenotype, child severity, and stress and depression in parents of children with autism spectrum disorders. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 5, 337–344. doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2010.04.017.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Janssens, A., Goossens, L., Van Den Noortgate, W., Colpin, H., Verschueren, K., & Van Leeuwen, K. (2014). Parents’ and adolescents’ perspectives on parenting: Evaluating conceptual structure, measurement invariance, and criterion validity. Assessment,. doi:10.1177/1073191114550477.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Karreman, A., de Haas, S., van Tuijl, C., van Aken, M. A. G., & Dekovic, M. (2010). Relations among temperament, parenting and problem behavior in young children. Infant Behavior and Development, 33, 39–49. doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2009.10.008.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Karreman, A., van Tuijl, C., van Aken, M. A. G., & Dekovic, M. (2008). Parenting, coparenting and effortful control in preschoolers. Journal of Family Psychology, 22, 30–40. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.22.1.30.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Karst, J. S., & Van Hecke, A. V. (2012). Parent and family impact of autism spectrum disorders: A review and proposed model for intervention evaluation. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 15, 247–277. doi:10.1007/s10567-012-0119-6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lambrechts, G., Van Leeuwen, K., Boonen, H., Maes, B., & Noens, I. (2011). Parenting behavior among parents of children with autism spectrum disorder [corrected]. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 5, 1143–1152. doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2010.12.011.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lemanek, K. L., Stone, W. L., & Fishel, P. T. (1993). Parent-child interactions in handicapped preschoolers: The relation between parent behaviors and compliance. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 22, 68–77. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp2201_7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lord, C., & Bishop, S. L. (2010). Autism spectrum disorders: Diagnosis, prevalence, and services for children and families, Social Policy Report. Society for Research in Child Development, 24(2), 1–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maljaars, J., Boonen, H., Lambrechts, G., Van Leeuwen, K., & Noens, I. (2014). Maternal parenting behavior and child behavior problems in families of children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44, 501–512. doi:10.1007/s10803-013-1894-8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McHale, J. P. (1995). Coparenting and triadic interactions during infancy: The roles of marital distress and child gender. Developmental Psychology, 31, 985–996. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.31.6.985.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meirsschaut, M., Warreyn, P., & Roeyers, H. (2011). What is the impact of autism on mother–child interactions within families with a child with autism spectrum disorder? Autism Research, 4, 358–367. doi:10.1002/aur.217.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Midouhas, E., Yogaratnam, A., Flouri, E., & Charman, T. (2013). Psychopathology trajectories of children with autism spectrum disorder: The role of family poverty and parenting. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 52(1057–1065), e1. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2013.07.011.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Noens, I., De la Marche, W., & Scholte, E. (2012). SRS-A: Screeningslijst voor autismespectrumstoornissen bij volwassenen, handleiding. Amsterdam: Hogrefe Uitgevers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Osborne, L. A., McHugh, L., Saunders, J., & Reed, P. (2008). The effect of parenting behaviors on subsequent child behavior problems in autistic spectrum conditions. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 2, 249–263. doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2007.06.004.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Osborne, L. A., & Reed, P. (2010). Stress and self-perceived parenting behaviors of parents of children with autistic spectrum conditions. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 4, 405–414. doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2009.10.011.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pettit, G. S., & Loulis, S. (1997). Introduction to special issue: Reciprocity and bidirectionality in parent–child relationships: New approaches to the study of enduring issues. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 14(4), 435–440. doi:10.1177/0265407597144001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Phelps, K. W., McCammon, S. L., Wuensch, K. L., & Golden, J. A. (2009). Enrichment, stress, and growth from parenting an individual with an autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Intellectual and Developmental Disability, 34, 133–141. doi:10.1080/13668250902845236.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Piven, J., Palmer, P., Jacobi, D., Childress, D., & Arndt, S. (1997). Broader autism phenotype: Evidence from a family history study of multiple-incidence autism families. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 185–190. doi:10.1176/ajp.154.2.185.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reed, P., & Osborne, L. (2014). Parenting and autism spectrum disorders. In V. B. Patel, V. R. Preedy, & C. R. Martin (Eds.), Comprehensive guide to autism (pp. 185–205). New York: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Research Department of the Flemish Government. (2011). Scholingsgraad van de bevolking (2564 jaar), in %. [Level of education of the population (25-64 years old), in %]. Retrieved from http://www4dar.vlaanderen.be/sites/svr/Cijfers/Exceltabellen/onderwijs/kwaliteitszorg/ONDEKWAL012.xls

  • Roeyers, H., Thys, M., Druart, C., De Schryver, M., & Schittekatte, M. (2011). SRS: screeningslijst voor autismespectrumstoornissen, handleiding. Amsterdam: Hogrefe Uitgevers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sattler, J. M., & Saklofske, D. H. (2001). Interpreting the WISC-III. In J. M. Sattler (Ed.), Assessment of children: Cognitive applications (4th ed., pp. 298–334). San Diego, CA: Jerome M. Sattler.

    Google Scholar 

  • Siller, M., Hutman, T., & Sigman, M. (2013). A parent-mediated intervention to increase responsive parental behaviors and child communication in children with ASD: A randomized clinical trial. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43(3), 540–555. doi:10.1007/s10803-012-1584-y.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Siller, M., & Sigman, M. (2002). The behaviors of parents of children with autism predict the subsequent development of their children’s communication. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 32, 77–89. doi:10.1023/A:1014884404276.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Siller, M., & Sigman, M. (2008). Modeling longitudinal change in the language abilities of children with autism: Parent behaviors and child characteristics as predictors of change. Developmental Psychology, 44, 1691–1704. doi:10.1037/a0013771.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Simons, L. G., & Conger, R. D. (2007). Linking mother–father differences in parenting to a typology of family parenting styles and adolescent outcomes. Journal of Family Issues, 28(2), 212–241. doi:10.1177/0192513X06294593.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, M. (2011). Measures for assessing parenting in research and practice. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 16, 158–166. doi:10.1111/j.1475-3588.2010.00585.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Soenens, B., Vansteenkiste, M., Lens, W., Luyckx, K., Goossens, L., Beyers, W., & Ryan, R. M. (2007). Conceptualizing parental autonomy support: Adolescents perceptions of promotion of independence versus promotion of volitional functioning. Developmental Psychology, 43, 633–646. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.43.3.633.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Szatmari, P., MacLean, J. E., Jones, M. B., Bryson, S. E., Zwaigenbaum, L., Bartolucci, G., et al. (2000). The familial aggregation of the lesser variant in biological and nonbiological relatives of PDD probands: A family history study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 41, 579–586. doi:10.1111/1469-7610.00644.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Van Leeuwen, K. G., Mervielde, I., Braet, C., & Bosmans, G. (2004). Child personality and parental behavior as moderators of problem behavior: Variable- and person-centered approaches. Developmental Psychology, 40, 1028–1046. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.40.6.1028.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Van Leeuwen, K. & Noens, I. (2013). Parental Behavior Scale for Autism spectrum disorders. Unpublished document, Leuven: KU Leuven.

  • Van Leeuwen, K. G., & Vermulst, A. A. (2004). Some psychometric properties of the Ghent Parental Behavior Scale. Journal of Psychological Assessment, 20(4), 283–298. doi:10.1027/1015-5759.20.4.283.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Leeuwen, K., & Vermulst, A. (2010). Handleiding bij de Verkorte Schaal voor Ouderlijk Gedrag [Manual of the Short Version of the Parental Behavior Scale]. Unpublished document, Leuven: Katholieke Universiteit Leuven.

  • Van Steijn, D. J., Oerlemans, A. M., de Ruiter, S. W., van Aken, M. A. G., Buitelaar, J. K., & Rommelse, N. N. J. (2013). Are parental autism spectrum disorder and/or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms related to parenting styles in families with ASD (+ADHD) affected children? European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 22, 671–681. doi:10.1007/s00787-013-0408-8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Volkmar, F., Siegel, M., Woodbury-Smith, M., King, B., McCracken, J., & State, M. (2014). Practice parameter for the assessment and treatment of children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 53, 237–257. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2013.10.013.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wan, M. W., Green, J., Elsabbagh, M., Johnson, M., Charman, T., & Plummer, F. (2012). Parent–infant interaction in infant siblings at risk of autism. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 33, 924–932. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2011.12.011.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wechsler, D. (1992). Wechsler intelligence scale for children (3rd ed.). London: The Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whipple, N., Bernier, A., & Mageau, G. A. (2011). Broadening the study of infant security of attachment: Maternal autonomy-support in the context of infant exploration. Social Development, 20, 17–32. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9507.2010.00574.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wing, L. (2006). Diagnostic interview for social and communication disorders (11th ed.). Bromley: Centre for Social and Communication Disorders.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zaslow, M. J., Weinfield, N. S., Gallagher, M., Hair, E. C., Ogawa, J. R., Egeland, B., et al. (2006). Longitudinal prediction of child outcomes from differing measures of parenting in a low-income sample. Developmental Psychology, 42(1), 27–37. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.42.1.27.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We would like to acknowledge the families who donated their time to participate in this study. This research was funded by grants from the Marguerite-Marie Delacroix Support Fund and the Research Fund KU Leuven, University of Leuven. We would also like to thank Eva Ceulemans for her statistical support.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Hannah Boonen.

Additional information

This article is part of the doctoral dissertation of the first author.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Boonen, H., van Esch, L., Lambrechts, G. et al. Mothers’ Parenting Behaviors in Families of School-Aged Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: An Observational and Questionnaire Study. J Autism Dev Disord 45, 3580–3593 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-015-2506-6

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-015-2506-6

Keywords

Navigation