Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Parental Depressive Symptoms and Adolescent Adjustment: A Prospective Test of an Explanatory Model for the Role of Marital Conflict

  • Published:
Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Despite calls for process-oriented models for child maladjustment due to heightened marital conflict in the context of parental depressive symptoms, few longitudinal tests of the mechanisms underlying these relations have been conducted. Addressing this gap, the present study examined multiple factors longitudinally that link parental depressive symptoms to adolescent adjustment problems, building on a conceptual model informed by emotional security theory (EST). Participants were from 320 families (158 boys, 162 girls), including mothers and fathers, who took part when their children were in kindergarten (T1), second (T2), seventh (T3), eighth (T4) and ninth (T5) grades. Parental depressive symptoms (T1) were related to changes in adolescents’ externalizing and internalizing symptoms (T5), as mediated by parents’ negative emotional expressiveness (T2), marital conflict (T3), and emotional insecurity (T4). Evidence was thus advanced for emotional insecurity as an explanatory process in the context of parental depressive symptoms.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Further analyses were conducted to examine a model that excluded variables without significant contributions to the pathways of interest. A reduced model with T1 and T2 positive emotional expressiveness and T1 emotional insecurity removed from analyses resulted in similar findings, in which significant pathways remained significant and fit indices were comparable (reduced model: χ 2(224) = 347.01, p < 0.001, CFI = 0.94, RMSEA = 0.04, SRMR = 0.06). The full model was retained for inclusion of these theory-driven constructs.

References

  • Achenbach, T. M. (1991). Manual for the child behavior checklist: 4–18 and 1991 profile. Burlington: University of Vermont Department of Psychiatry.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beach, S. R. H., Smith, D. A., & Fincham, F. D. (1994). Marital interventions for depression: empirical foundation and future prospects. Applied and Preventive Psychology, 3, 233–250. doi:10.1016/S0962-1849(05)80097-6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, L. A., & Watson, D. (1991). Tripartite model of anxiety and depression: psychometric evidence and taxomic implications. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 316–336. doi:10.1037/0021843X.100.3.316.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cole, D. A., & Maxwell, S. E. (2003). Testing mediational models with longitudinal data. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 112, 558–577. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.112.4.558.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Connell, A. M., & Goodman, S. H. (2002). The association between psychopathology in fathers versus mothers and children’s internalizing and externalizing behavior problems: a meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 746–773. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.128.5.746.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cummings, E. M., & Davies, P. T. (2010). Marital conflict and children: An emotional security perspective. New York: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cummings, E. M., & Schatz, J. N. (2012). Family conflict, emotional security, and child development: translating research findings into a prevention program for community families. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 15, 14–27.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cummings, E. M., Davies, P. T., & Campbell, S. B. (2000). Developmental psychopathology and family process: Theory, research, and clinical implications. New York: Guilford Publications, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cummings, E. M., Merrilees, C. E., & George, M. W. (2010). Fathers, marriages, and families: revisiting and updating the framework for fathering in family context. In M. E. Lamb (Ed.), The role of the father in child development 5 th Ed (pp. 154–176). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cummings, E. M., Cheung, R. Y. M., & Davies, P. (2013). Prospective relations between parental depression, negative expressiveness, emotional insecurity, and children’s internalizing symptoms. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 44(6), 698–708. doi:10.1007/s10578-013-0362-1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davies, P. T., & Cummings, E. M. (1994). Marital conflict and child adjustment: an emotional security hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin, 116, 387–411. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.116.3.387.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davies, P. T., Forman, E. M., Rasi, J. A., & Stevens, K. I. (2002). Assessing children’s emotional security in the interparental relationship: the security in the interparental subsystem scales. Child Development, 73, 544–562. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00423.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Downey, G., & Coyne, J. C. (1990). Children of depressed parents: an integrative review. Psychological Bulletin, 108, 50–76. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.108.1.50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Du Rocher Schudlich, T. D., & Cummings, E. M. (2007). Parental dysphoria and children’s adjustment: marital conflict styles, children’s emotional security, and parenting as mediators of risk. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35, 627–639. doi:10.1007/s10802-007-9118-3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Du Rocher Schudlich, T. D., Papp, L. M., & Cummings, E. (2004). Relations of husbands’ and wives’ dysphoria to marital conflict resolution strategies. Journal of Family Psychology, 18, 171–183. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.18.1.171.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Du Rocher Schudlich, T. D., Papp, L. M., & Cummings, E. M. (2011). Relations between spouses’ depressive symptoms and marital conflict: a longitudinal investigation of the role of conflict resolution styles. Journal of Family Psychology, 25, 531–540. doi:10.1037/a0024216.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Feng, X., Shaw, D. S., Skuban, E. M., & Lane, T. (2007). Emotional exchange in mother-child dyads: stability, mutual influence, and associations with maternal depression and child problem behavior. Journal of Family Psychology, 21, 714–725. doi:10.1037/08933200.21.4.714.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fosco, G. M., & Grych, J. H. (2007). Emotional expression in the family as a context for children’s appraisals of interparental conflict. Journal of Family Psychology, 21, 248–258.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Garber, J. (2006). Depression in children and adolescents: linking risk research and prevention. American Journal of Preventative Medicine, 31, S104–S125. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2006.07.007.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, R. (1997). The strengths and difficulties questionnaire: a research note. Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 38, 581–586. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1997.tb01545.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, S. H., Adamson, L. B., Riniti, J., & Cole, S. (1994). Mothers’ expressed attitudes: associations with maternal depression and children’s self-esteem and psychopathology. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 33, 1265–1274. doi:10.1097/00004583-199411000-00007.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Halberstadt, A. G. (1983). Family expressiveness styles and nonverbal communication skills. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 8, 14–26. doi:10.1007/BF00986327.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Halberstadt, A. G., Cassidy, J., Stifter, C. A., Parke, R. D., & Fox, N. A. (1995). Self expressiveness within the family context: psychometric support for a new measure. Psychological Assessment, 7, 93–103. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.7.1.93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hammen, C., & Brennan, P. A. (2003). Severity, chronicity, and timing of maternal depression and risk for adolescent offspring diagnoses in a community sample. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60(3), 253–258.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hanington, L., Heron, J., Stein, A., & Ramchandani, P. (2012). Parental depression and child outcomes – is marital conflict the missing link? Child: Care, Health and Development, 38, 520–529. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2214.2011.01270.x.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jacob, T., & Johnson, S. L. (1997). Parent–child interaction among depressed fathers and mothers: impact on child functioning. Journal of Family Psychology, 11, 391–409. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.11.4.391.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kane, P., & Garber, J. (2004). The relations among depression in fathers, children’s psychopathology, and father-child conflict: a meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 24, 339–360. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2004.03.004.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kane, P., & Garber, J. (2009). Parental depression and child externalizing and internalizing symptoms: unique effects of fathers’ symptoms and perceived conflict as a mediator. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 18, 465–472. doi:10.1007/s10826-008-9250-x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keller, P. S., Cummings, E. M., Peterson, K. M., & Davies, P. T. (2009). Marital conflict in the context of parental depressive symptoms: implications for the development of children’s adjustment problems. Social Development, 18, 536–555. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9507.2008.00509.x.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kerig, P. K. (1996). Assessing the links between interparental conflict and child adjustment: the conflicts and problem-solving scales. Journal of Family Psychology, 10, 454–473. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.10.4.454.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kouros, C. D., Merriless, C. E., & Cummings, E. M. (2008). Marital conflict and children’s emotional security in the context of parental depression. Journal of Marriage and Family, 70, 684–697. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2008.00514.x.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Laible, D. (2006). Maternal emotional expressiveness and attachment security: links to representations of relationships and social behavior. Merrill Palmer Quarterly, 52, 645–670. doi:10.1353/mpq.2006.0035.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lehmann, H. E. (1983). Clinical evaluation and natural course of depression. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 44, 5–10.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Low, S. M., & Stocker, C. (2005). Family functioning and children’s adjustment: associations among parents’ depressed mood, marital hostility, parent–child hostility, and children’s adjustment. Journal of Family Psychology, 19, 394–403. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.19.3.394.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McArdle, J. J. (2009). Latent variable modeling of differences and changes with longitudinal data. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 577–605.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McCoy, K., Cummings, E. M., & Davies, P. T. (2009). Constructive and destructive marital conflict, emotional security and children’s prosocial behavior. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50, 270–279. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.01945.x.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Murray, L., Arteche, A., Fearon, P., Halligan, S., Goodyer, I., & Cooper, P. (2011). Maternal postnatal depression and the development of depression in offspring up to 16 years of age. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 50, 460–470. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2011.02.001.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998–2012). Mplus user’s guide. Sixth Edition. Los Angeles: Muthén & Muthén.

  • Nomura, Y., Wickramaratne, P. J., Warner, V., Mufson, L., & Weissman, M. M. (2002). Family discord, parental depression and psychopathology in offspring: ten-year follow-up. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41, 402–409. doi:10.1097/00004583-200204000-00012.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Perils, R. H., Fraguas, R., Fava, M., Trivedi, M. H., Luther, J. F., Wisniewski, S. R., et al. (2005). Prevalence and clinical correlates of irritability in major depressive disorder: a preliminary report from the sequenced treatment alternatives to relieve depression study. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 66, 159–166. doi:10.4088/JCP.v66n0202.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Porter, B., & O’Leary, K. D. (1980). Marital discord and childhood behavior problems. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 8, 287–295. doi:10.1007/BF00916376.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D scale: a self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1, 385–401. doi:10.1177/014662167700100306.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Radloff, L. S. (1991). The use of the center for epidemiologic studies depression scale in adolescents and young adults. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 20, 149–166. doi:10.1007/BF01537606.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ramchandani, P. G., O’Connor, T. G., Evans, J., Heron, J., Murray, L., & Stein, A. (2008). The effects of pre- and postnatal depression in fathers: a natural experiment comparing the effects of exposure to depression on offspring. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 49, 1069–1078. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.02000.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reeb, B. T., Conger, K. J., & Wu, E. Y. (2010). Paternal depressive symptoms and adolescent functioning: the moderating effect of gender and father hostility. Fathering, 8, 131–142. doi:10.3149/fth.0801.131.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Rehman, U. S., Ginting, J., Karimiha, G., & Goodnight, J. A. (2010). Revisiting the relationship between depressive symptoms and marital communication using an experimental paradigm: the moderating effect of acute sad mood. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 48, 97–105. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2009.09.013.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, C. R. (1980). Concurrent validity of what I think and feel: the revised children’s manifest anxiety scale. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 48, 774–775. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.48.6.774.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, C. R., & Paget, K. D. (1983). National normative and reliability data for the revised children’s manifest anxiety scale. School Psychology Review, 12(3), 324–336.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, C. R., & Richmond, B. O. (1978). What I think and feel: a revised measure of children’s manifest anxiety. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 6, 271–280.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rice, F., Harold, G. T., Shelton, K. H., & Thapar, A. (2006). Family conflict interacts with genetic liability in predicting childhood and adolescent depression. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 45, 841–848. doi:10.1097/01.chi.0000219834.08602.44.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, R. E., Andrews, J. A., Lewinsohn, P. M., & Hops, H. (1990). Assessment of depression in adolescents using the center for epidemiologic studies depression scale. Psychological Assessment: A Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 2, 122–128. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.2.2.122.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sheeber, L. B., Davis, B., Leve, C., Hops, H., & Tildesley, E. (2007). Adolescents’ relationships with their mothers and fathers: associations with depressive disorder and subdiagnostic symptomatology. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116, 144–154. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.116.1.144.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Shelton, K. H., & Harold, G. T. (2008). Interparental conflict, negative parenting, and children’s adjustment: bridging links between parents’ depression and children’s psychological distress. Journal of Family Psychology, 5, 712–724. doi:10.1037/a0013515.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shrout, P. E., & Bolger, N. (2002). Mediation in experimental and nonexperimental studies: new procedures and recommendations. Psychological Methods, 7, 422–445. doi:10.1037/1082-989X.7.4.422.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van Roekel, E., Engels, R. C. M. E., Verhagen, M., Goossens, L., & Scholte, R. H. J. (2011). Parental depressive feelings, parental support, and the serotonin transporter gene as predictors of adolescent depressive feelings: a latent growth curve analysis. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 40, 453–462. doi:10.1007/s10964-010-9560-3.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Waters, E., & Cummings, E. M. (2000). A secure base from which to explore close relationships. Child Development, 49, 164–172. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00130.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weissman, M. M., Warner, V., Wickramaratne, P., Moreau, D., & Olfson, M. (1997). Offspring of depressed parents: 10 years later. Archives of General Psychiatry, 54, 932–940. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/619195536?accountid=12874.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Whisman, M. A. (2001). The association between depression and marital dissatisfaction. In S. R. H. Beach (Ed.), Marital and family processes in depression: A scientific foundation for clinical practice (pp. 3–24). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wong, M. S., McElwain, N. L., & Halberstadt, A. G. (2009). Parent, family, and child characteristics: associations with mother- and father-reported emotion socialization practices. Journal of Family Psychology, 23, 452–463. doi:10.1037/a0015552.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, 46556, USA

    E. Mark Cummings & Rebecca Y. M. Cheung

  2. Institute of Child Development, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA

    Kalsea Koss

  3. University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA

    Patrick T. Davies

Authors
  1. E. Mark Cummings
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Rebecca Y. M. Cheung
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Kalsea Koss
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Patrick T. Davies
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to E. Mark Cummings.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Cummings, E.M., Cheung, R.Y.M., Koss, K. et al. Parental Depressive Symptoms and Adolescent Adjustment: A Prospective Test of an Explanatory Model for the Role of Marital Conflict. J Abnorm Child Psychol 42, 1153–1166 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-014-9860-2

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-014-9860-2

Keywords

Search

Navigation