Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

The Association Between Sluggish Cognitive Tempo and Academic Functioning in Youth with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

  • Published:
Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The purpose of the study was to evaluate the relation between Sluggish Cognitive Tempo (SCT) and academic functioning in a sample of 52 adolescents (40 males, 12 females) with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD; M age = 13.75). This study builds on prior work by utilizing an empirically-based and psychometrically validated measure of SCT, collecting ratings of SCT from both parents and teachers, and examining associations with multiple domains of academic functioning from both the parent and teacher perspective as well as grade point average (GPA). Both SCT and DSM-IV symptoms of inattention were significantly correlated with domains of academic functioning. Multiple regression analyses demonstrated that the parent-rated SCT Slow subscale predicted overall academic functioning, organizational skills impairment, and homework problems above and beyond ADHD symptoms and child and demographic characteristics known to be associated with academics, including intelligence, academic achievement, and family income. The teacher-rated SCT Low Initiation/Persistence subscale also predicted homework problems and was the only SCT variable to predict school grades above and beyond ADHD symptoms and relevant covariates. Both the SCT Slow and Low Initiation/Persistence subscales include items related to youth seeming apathetic, unmotivated, and lacking initiative, behaviors that are strongly related to ADHD symptoms of inattention but not currently captured by the DSM-IV. Implications of these findings towards supporting the external validity of the SCT construct are discussed along with potential implications for intervention.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abikoff, H., & Gallagher, R. (2008). Children’s Organizational skills scales: technical manual. North Tonawanda: Multi-Health Systems Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anesko, K. M., Schoiock, G., Ramirez, R., & Levine, F. M. (1987). The homework problem checklist: assessing children’s homework problems. Behavioral Assessment, 9, 179–185.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barkley, R. A. (1997). Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: constructing a unifying therapy of ADHD. Psychological Bulletin, 121, 65–94.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barkley, R. A. (2012). Distinguishing sluggish cognitive tempo from Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in adults. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 121, 978–990.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bauermeister, J. J., Barkley, R. A., Bauermeister, J. A., Martínez, J. V., & McBurnett, K. (2012). Validity of the sluggish cognitive tempo, inattention, and hyperactivity symptom dimensions: Neuropsychological and psychosocial correlates. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 40, 683–697.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Becker, S. P., & Langberg, J. M. (2012). Sluggish cognitive tempo among young adolescents with ADHD: relations to mental health, academic, and social functioning. Journal of Attention Disorders. doi:10.1177/1087054711435411. Advance online publication.

  • Becker, S. P., Luebbe, A. M., Fite, P. J., Stoppelbein, L., & Greening, L. (2013). Sluggish cognitive tempo in psychiatrically hospitalized children: Factor structure and relations to internalizing symptoms, social problems, and observed behavioral dysregulation. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology. doi: 10.1007/s10802-013-9719-y

  • Capdevila-Brophy, C., Artigas-Pallares, J., Navarro-Pastor, J. B., Garcia-Nonell, K., Rigau-Ratera, E., & Obiols, J. E. (2012). ADHD predominately inattentive subtype with high sluggish cognitive tempo: a new clinical entity? Journal of Attention Disorders. doi:10.1177/1087054712445483. Advance online publication.

  • Carlson, C. L., & Mann, M. (2000). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, predominately inattentive subtype. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 9, 499–510.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carlson, C. L., & Mann, M. (2002). Sluggish cognitive tempo predicts a different pattern of impairment in the Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, predominately inattentive type. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 31, 123–129.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J., Cohen, P., West, S. G., & Aiken, L. S. (2003). Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences (3rd ed.). London: Routledge Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Desmon, C., Petermann, F., & Hampel, P. (2008). Deficit in response inhibition in children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Impact of motivation? Child Neuropsychology, 14, 483–503.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diamond, A. (2005). Attention-Deficit Disorder: a neurobiologically and behaviorally distinct disorder from Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 807–825.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DuPaul, G. J., & Stoner, G. (2003). ADHD in the schools: assessment and intervention strategies (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Evans, S. W., Brady, C. E., Harrison, J. R., Bunford, N., Kern, L., & State, T. (2012). Measuring ADHD Symptoms and Impairment Based on High School Teachers’ Ratings. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology. doi:10.1080/15374416.2012.738456. Advance online publication.

  • Fabiano, G. A., Pelham, W. E., Waschbusch, D. A., Gnagy, E. M., Lahey, B. B., & Chronis, A. M. (2006). A practical measure of impairment: psychometric properties of the impairment rating scale in samples of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and two school-based samples. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 35, 369–385.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Garner, A. A., Marceaux, J. C., Mrug, S., Patterson, C., & Hodgens, B. (2010). Dimensions and correlates of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and sluggish cognitive tempo. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 38, 1097–1107.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hartman, C. A., Willcutt, E. G., Rhee, S. H., & Pennington, B. F. (2004). The relation between sluggish cognitive tempo and DSM-IV ADHD. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 32(5), 491–503.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Huang-Pollock, C. L., Mikami, A. Y., Piffner, L., & Burnett, K. (2007). ADHD subtype differences in motivational responsivity but not inhibitory control: evidence from a reward-based variation of the stop signal paradigm. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 36(2), 127–136.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jacobson, L. A., Murphy-Bowman, S. C., Pritchard, A. E., Tart-Zelvin, A., Zabel, T. A., & Mahone, E. M. (2012). Factor structure of a sluggish cognitive tempo scale in clinically-referred children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology. doi:10.1007/s10802-012-9643-6.

  • Langberg, J. M., & Becker, S. P. (2012). Does long-term medication use improve the academic outcomes of youth with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder? Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 15, 215–233.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Langberg, J. M., Epstein, J. N., Urbanowicz, C., Simon, J., & Graham, A. (2008). Efficacy of an organization skills intervention to improve the academic functioning of students with ADHD. School Psychology Quarterly, 23, 407–417.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Langberg, J. M., Epstein, J. N., Girio-Herrera, E., Becker, S. P., Vaughn, A. J., & Altaye, M. (2011). Materials organization, planning, and homework completion in middle-school students with ADHD: Impact on academic performance. School Mental Health, 11, 93–101.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Langberg, J. M., Molina, B. S. G., Arnold, L. E., Epstein, J. N., Altaye, M., & Hinshaw, S. P. (2011). Patterns and predictors of adolescent academic achievement and performance in a sample of children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 40, 519–531.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Langberg, J. M., Epstein, J. N., Becker, S. P., Girio-Herrera, E., & Vaughn, A. J. (2012). Evaluation of the Homework, Organization, and Planning Skills (HOPS) intervention for middle school students with ADHD as implemented by school mental health providers. School Psychology Review, 41, 342–364.

    Google Scholar 

  • Massetti, G. M., Lahey, B. B., Pelham, W. E., Loney, J., Ehrhardt, A., Lee, S. S., et al. (2008). Academic achievement over 8 years among children who met modified criteria for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder at 4–6 years of age. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 399–410. doi:10.1007/s10802-007-9186-4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McBurnett, K., Pfiffner, W. E., & Frick, P. J. (2001). Symptom properties as a function of ADHD type: an argument for continued study of sluggish cognitive temp. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 29, 207–213.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Milich, R., Balentine, A. C., & Lynam, D. R. (2001). ADHD combined type and ADHD predominately inattentive type are distinct and unrelated disorders. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 8, 463–488.

    Google Scholar 

  • Penny, A. M., Waschbusch, D. A., Klein, R. M., Corkum, P., & Eskes, G. (2009). Developing a measure of sluggish cognitive tempo for children: content validity, factor structure, and reliability. Psychological Assessment, 21, 380–389.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pfiffner, L. J., Mikami, A. Y., Huang-Pollock, C., Easterlin, B., Zalecki, C., & McBurrnet, K. (2007). A randomized, comparisonled trial of integrated home-school behavioral treatment for ADHD, Predominately Inattentive Type. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 46, 1041–1050.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sattler, J. M., & Dumont, R. (2004). Assessment of children: WISC-IV and WPPSI-III supplement. San Diego: Jerome M. Sattler, Publisher, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shaffer, D., Fischer, P., Lucas, C. P., Dulcan, M. K., & Schwab-Stone, M. E. (2000). NIMH diagnostic interview schedule for children version IV (NIMH DISC-IV): description, differences from previous versions, and reliability of some common diagnoses. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 28–38.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sonuga-Barke, E. J. (2003). The dual pathway model of AD/HD: an elaboration of neuro-developmental characteristics. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 27, 593–604.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tripp, G., & Wickens, J. R. (2008). Research review: dopamine transfer deficit: a neurobiological theory of altered reinforcement mechanisms in ADHD. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49, 691–704.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Volkow, N. D., Wang, G.-J., Newcorn, J. H., Kollins, S. H., Wigal, T. L., & Telang, F. (2011). Motivation deficit in ADHD is associated with dysfunction of the dopamine reward pathway. Molecular Psychiatry, 16, 1147–1154.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wahlstedt, C., & Bohlin, G. (2010). DSM-IV defined inattention and sluggish cognitive temp: independent and interactive relations to neuropsychological factors and comorbidity. Child Neuropsychology, 16, 350–365.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wechsler, D. (2003). Wechsler intelligence scale for children—fourth edition. San Antonio: Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wechsler, D. (2009). Wechsler individual achievement test—third edition. San Antonio: Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Willcutt, E. G., Nigg, J. T., Pennington, B. F., Solanto, M. V., Rohde, L. A., Tannock, R., et al. (2012). Validity of DSM-IV Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder symptom dimensions and subtypes. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 121, 991–1010.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolraich, M. L., Feurer, I. D., Hannah, J. N., Baumgaertel, A., & Pinnock, T. Y. (1998). Obtaining systematic teacher reports of disruptive behavior disorders utilizing DSM-IV. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 26, 141–152.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wolraich, M. L., Lambert, W., Doffing, M. A., Bickman, L., Simmons, T., & Worley, K. (2003). Psychometric properties of the Vanderbilt ADHD Diagnostic Parent Rating Scale in a referred population. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 28, 559–568.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wormington, S. V., Corpus, J. H., & Anderson, K. G. (2012). A person-centered investigation of academic motivation and its correlates in high school. Learning and Individual Differences, 22, 429–438.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

Funding for this study was provided by Institute of Education Sciences (IES; R305A090305). The opinions expressed are those of the authors and do not represent views of the Institute or the U.S. Department of Education.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA

    Joshua M. Langberg & Melissa R. Dvorsky

  2. Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, USA

    Joshua M. Langberg

  3. Miami University, Oxford, OH, USA

    Stephen P. Becker

  4. Department of Psychology, Virginia Commonwealth University, 806 W. Franklin Street, Richmond, VA, 23284, USA

    Joshua M. Langberg

Authors
  1. Joshua M. Langberg
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Stephen P. Becker
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Melissa R. Dvorsky
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Joshua M. Langberg.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Langberg, J.M., Becker, S.P. & Dvorsky, M.R. The Association Between Sluggish Cognitive Tempo and Academic Functioning in Youth with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). J Abnorm Child Psychol 42, 91–103 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-013-9722-3

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-013-9722-3

Keywords

Search

Navigation