Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Conceptions, Self-Regulation, and Strategies of Learning Science Among Chinese High School Students

  • Published:
International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This study explored the structural relationships among secondary school students’ conceptions, self-regulation, and strategies of learning science in mainland China. Three questionnaires, namely conceptions of learning science (COLS), self-regulation of learning science (SROLS), and strategies of learning science (SLS) were developed for investigating 333 Chinese high school learners’ conceptions, metacognitive self-regulation, and strategies in science. The confirmatory factor analysis results verified the validity of the three surveys. Moreover, the path analyses revealed a series of interesting findings. Learners with lower-level COLS, namely “memorizing,” “testing,” and “practicing and calculating,” tended to use surface learning strategies such as “minimizing scope of the study” and “rote learning.” However, learners’ higher-level COLS, namely “increase of knowledge,” “applying,” “understanding,” and “seeing in a new way,” had complicated connections with their SROLS and SLS. On the one hand, learners’ higher-level COLS had negative relations to “minimizing scope of the study” and “rote learning.” On the other hand, their higher-level COLS were powerful predicators for their metacognitive self-regulation and further affected their use of “deep strategy” and “rote learning.” Though Chinese secondary students with higher-level COLS usually have a negative view of “rote learning,” the functioning of their metacognitive self-regulation may change their initial attitudes towards the surface strategy. Learners with higher-level COLS still used “rote learning” as a prior step for achieving deep learning. Therefore, we concluded that the SROLS played an important mediating role between the COLS and SLS and may change learners’ original intention to utilize learning strategies.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Alpaslan, M. M., Yalvac, B., Loving, C. C. & Willson, V. (2016). Exploring the relationship between high school students’ physics-related personal epistemologies and self-regulated learning in Turkey. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 14(2), 297–317.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Asikainen, H., Virtanen, V., Parpala, A. & Lindblom-Ylänne, S. (2013). Understanding the variation in bioscience students’ conceptions of learning in the 21st century. International Journal of Educational Research, 62, 36–42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bao, L., Cai, T., Koenig, K., Fang, K., Han, J., Wang, J. & Wu, N. (2009). Physics: Learning and scientific reasoning. Science, 323, 586–587.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bentler, P. M. (1989). EQS, structural equations, program manual, program version 3.0. Los Angeles, CA: BMDP Statistical Software, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bentler, P. M. & Chou, C. P. (1987). Practical issues in structural modeling. Sociological Methods & Research, 16(1), 78–117.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Biggs, J. (1996). Western misperceptions of the Confucian-heritage learning culture. In D. Watkins & J. Biggs (Eds.), The Chinese learner: Cultural, psychological, and contextual influences (pp. 45–68). Hong Kong, China: Australian Council for Educational Research.

    Google Scholar 

  • Browne, M. W. & Cudeck, R. (1993). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. In K. A. Bollen & J. S. Long (Eds.), Testing structural equation models (pp. 136–162). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chen, M. J. (1994). Chinese and Australian concepts of intelligence. Psychology and Developing Societies, 6(2), 103–117.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cheng, X. (2000). Asian students’ reticence revisited. System, 28(3), 435–446.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cheng, K. H., Liang, J. C. & Tsai, C. C. (2013). University students’ online academic help seeking: The role of self-regulation and information commitments. The Internet and Higher Education, 16, 70–77.

  • Chiou, G. L., Liang, J. C. & Tsai, C. C. (2012). Undergraduate students’ conceptions of and approaches to learning in biology: A study of their structural models and gender differences. International Journal of Science Education, 34, 167–195.

  • Chiu, M. S. (2012). Identification and assessment of Taiwanese children’s conceptions of learning of mathematics. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 10(1), 163–191.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cooper, M. M., Sandi-Urena, S. & Stevens, R. (2008). Reliable multi-method assessment of metacognition use in chemistry problem solving. Chemistry Education Research and Practice, 9(1), 18–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dart, B. C., Burnett, P. C., Purdie, N., Boulton-Lewis, G., Campbell, J. & Smith, D. (2000). Students’ conceptions of learning, the classroom environment, and approaches to learning. The Journal of Educational Research, 93(4), 262–270.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dörnyei, Z. & Ryan, S. (2015). The psychology of the language learner revisited. New York, NY: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Duarte, A. M. (2007). Conceptions of learning and approaches to learning in Portuguese students. Higher Education, 54(6), 781–794.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duncan, T. G. & McKeachie, W. J. (2005). The making of the motivated strategies for learning questionnaire. Educational Psychologist, 40(2), 117–128.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eklund-Myrskog, G. (1998). Students’ conceptions of learning in different educational contexts. Higher Education, 35(3), 299–316.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ferla, J., Valcke, M. & Schuyten, G. (2008). Relationships between student cognitions and their effects on study strategies. Learning and Individual Differences, 18(2), 271–278.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Floyd, K. S., Harrington, S. J. & Santiago, J. (2009). The effect of engagement and perceived course value on deep and surface learning strategies. Informing Science: the International Journal of an Emerging Transdiscipline, 12, 181–190.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fornell, C. & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(1), 39–50.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., Anderson, R. E. & Tatham, R. L. (2006). Multivariate data analysis (6th ed.). New York: Prentice.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heikkilä, A. & Lonka, K. (2006). Studying in higher education: students’ approaches to learning, self-regulation, and cognitive strategies. Studies in Higher Education, 31(1), 99–117.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hong, E. & Peng, Y. (2008). Do Chinese students’ perceptions of test value affect test performance? Mediating role of motivational and metacognitive regulation in test preparation. Learning and Instruction, 18(6), 499–512.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hsu, Y. S., Iannone, P., She, H. C., Hadwin, A. F. & Yore, L. D. (2016). Epilogue for the IJSME special issue: Metacognition for science and mathematics learning in technology-infused learning environments. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 14(2), 335–344.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hsu, Y. S., Yen, M. H., Chang, W. H., Wang, C. Y. & Chen, S. F. (2016). Content analysis of 1998–2012 empirical studies in science reading using a self-regulated learning lens. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 14(1), S1–S27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jiang, X. & Smith, R. (2009). Chinese learners’ strategy use in historical perspective: A cross-generational interview-based study. System, 37(2), 286–299.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jöreskog, K. G. & Sörbom, D. (1993). LISREL 8: Structural equation modeling with the SIMPLIS command language. Lincolnwood, IL: Scientific Software.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kember, D., Biggs, J. & Leung, D. Y. P. (2004). Examining the multidimensionality of approaches to learning through the development of a revised version of the learning process questionnaire. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 74(2), 261–279.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kennedy, P. (2002). Learning cultures and learning styles: Myth-understandings about adult (Hong Kong) Chinese learners. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 21(5), 430–445.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Khine, M. S. (2013). Application of structural equation modeling in educational research and practice. Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Sense.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, M. H., Johanson, R. E. & Tsai, C. C. (2008). Exploring Taiwanese high school students’ conceptions of and approaches to learning science through a structural equation modeling analysis. Science Education, 92(2), 191–220.

  • Leopold, C. & Leutner, D. (2015). Improving students’ science text comprehension through metacognitive self-regulation when applying learning strategies. Metacognition and Learning, 10(3), 313–346.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lin, H. M. & Tsai, C. C. (2008). Conceptions of learning management among undergraduate students in Taiwan. Management Learning, 39(5), 561–578.

  • Lin, C. L., Tsai, C. C. & Liang, J. C. (2012). An investigation of two profiles within conceptions of learning science: an examination of confirmatory factor analysis. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 27(4), 499–521.

  • Loyens, S. M., Rikers, R. M. & Schmidt, H. G. (2008). Relationships between students’ conceptions of constructivist learning and their regulation and processing strategies. Instructional Science, 36(5–6), 445–462.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marshall, D., Summer, M. & Woolnough, B. (1999). Students’ conceptions of learning in an engineering context. Higher Education, 38, 291–309.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marton, F., Dall’Alba, G. & Beaty, E. (1993). Conceptions of learning. International Journal of Educational Research, 19, 277–300.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pedhazur, E. J. (1997). Multiple regression in behavioral research (3rd ed.). Orlanda, FL: Harcourt Brace.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pintrich, P. R. (2004). A conceptual framework for assessing motivation and self-regulated learning in college students. Educational Psychology Review, 16(4), 385–407.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pintrich, P. R., Smith, D. A. F., Garcia, T. & McKeachie, W. (1991). A manual for the use of the motivated strategies for learning questionnaire (MSLQ). Ann Arbor, MI: National Center for Research on Postsecondary Teaching and Learning.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pintrich, P. R., Smith, D. A. F., Garcia, T. & McKeachie, W. J. (1993). Reliability and predictive validity of the motivated strategies for learning questionnaire (MSLQ). Educational and Psychological Measurement, 53(3), 801–813.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Purdie, N., Hattie, J. & Douglas, G. (1996). Student conceptions of learning and their use of self-regulated learning strategies: A cross-cultural comparison. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88(1), 87–100.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sadi, O. & Dagyar, M. (2015). High school students’ epistemological beliefs, conceptions of learning, and self-efficacy for learning biology: A study of their structural models. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics Science and Technology Education, 11(5), 1061–1079.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sadi, O. & Lee, M. H. (2015). The conceptions of learning science for science-mathematics groups and literature-mathematics groups in Turkey. Research in Science & Technological Education, 33(2), 182–196.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Säljö, R. (1979). Learning in the learner’s perspective. I. Some common sense conceptions (Report No. 76). Gothenburg, Sweden: University of Göteborg.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sandi-Urena, S., Cooper, M. M. & Stevens, R. H. (2011). Enhancement of metacognition use and awareness by means of a collaborative intervention. International Journal of Science Education, 33(3), 323–340.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schraw, G. (2000). Assessing metacognition: implications of the Buros Symposium. In G. Schraw & J. C. Impara (Eds.), Issues in the measurement of metacognition (pp. 297–321). Lincoln, NE: Buros Institute of Mental Measurements.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schraw, G., Crippen, K. J. & Hartley, K. (2006). Promoting self-regulation in science education: Metacognition as part of a broader perspective on learning. Research in Science Education, 36(1–2), 111–139.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schunk, D. H. & Zimmerman, B. J. (2003). Self-regulation and learning. In W. M. Reynolds & G. E. Miller (Eds.), Handbook of psychology: Educational psychology (Vol. 7, pp. 59–78). New York, NY: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taasoobshirazi, G. & Sinatra, G. M. (2011). A structural equation model of conceptual change in physics. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 48, 901–918.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tsai, C. C. (2004). Conceptions of learning science among high school students in Taiwan: a phenomenographic analysis. International Journal of Science Education, 26 (14):1733–1750.

  • Tsai, C. C. & Kuo, P. C. (2008). Cram school students’ conceptions of learning and learning science in Taiwan. International Journal of Science Education, 30(3), 353–375.

  • Tsai, C. C., Jessie Ho, H. N., Liang, J. C. & Lin, H. M. (2011). Scientific epistemic beliefs, conceptions of learning science and self-efficacy of learning science among high school students. Learning and Instruction, 21(6), 757–769.

  • Vermunt, J. D. & Vermetten, Y. J. (2004). Patterns in student learning: Relationships between learning strategies, conceptions of learning, and learning orientations. Educational Psychology Review, 16(4), 359–384.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhao, Z. Q. & Thomas, G. P. (2016). Mainland Chinese students’ conceptions of learning science: A phenomenographic study in Hebei and Shandong Provinces. International Journal of Educational Research, 75, 76–87.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zheng, C., Liang, J. C., Yang, Y. F. & Tsai, C. C. (2016). The relationship between Chinese university students’ conceptions of language learning and their online self-regulation. System, 57, 66–78.

  • Zhu, X. (2013). Exploring students’ conception and expectations of achievement in physical education. Measurement in Physical Education and Exercise Science, 17(1), 62–73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerman, B. J. (1990). Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: An overview. Educational Psychologist, 25(1), 3–17.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerman, B. J. & Kitsantas, A. (2014). Comparing students’ self-discipline and self-regulation measures and their prediction of academic achievement. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 39(2), 145–155.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zohar, A. & Barzilai, S. (2013). A review of research on metacognition in science education: Current and future directions. Studies in Science Education, 49(2), 121–169.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The research is funded by the Humanities and Social Sciences Fund of Chinese Ministry of Education (Grant 13YJA880040, awarded to Mang Li and Grant 16YJC740099, awarded to Chunping Zheng).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Faculty of Education, Beijing Normal University, Room 1004, Zone C, Keji Building, No. 19 Xinjiekouwai Street, Haidian District, Beijing, 100875, China

    Mang Li, Chunping Zheng & Yun Zhang

  2. Department of Foreign Languages, School of Humanities, Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Beijing, 100876, China

    Chunping Zheng

  3. Graduate Institute of Digital Learning and Education, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taipei City, 10607, Taiwan

    Jyh-Chong Liang & Chin-Chung Tsai

Authors
  1. Mang Li
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Chunping Zheng
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Jyh-Chong Liang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Yun Zhang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Chin-Chung Tsai
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Mang Li.

Appendix 1

Appendix 1

Three Questionnaires (English Version)

The Questionnaire for the COLS: Conceptions of Learning Science

  1. Factor 1

    Memorizing (M)

    1. 1.

      Learning science means memorizing the important concepts found in a science textbook.

    2. 2.

      Learning science means remembering what the teacher lectures about in science class.

    3. 3.

      Learning science means memorizing scientific symbols, scientific concepts, and facts.

    4. 4.

      When learning science, just like when learning history or geography, the most important thing is to memorize the content of the text book.

  2. Factor 2

    Testing (T)

    1. 5.

      Learning science means getting high scores on examinations.

    2. 6.

      I learn science so that I can do well on science-related tests.

    3. 7.

      The major purpose of learning science is to get more familiar with test materials.

    4. 8.

      There is a close relationship between learning science and taking tests.

  3. Factor 3

    Practicing and calculating (PC)

    1. 9.

      Learning science means constantly practicing calculation and solving problems.

    2. 10.

      Learning calculations or problem-solving will help me improve my performance in science courses.

    3. 11.

      Learning science means knowing how to use the correct formulae when solving problems.

    4. 12.

      There is a close relationship between learning science, being good at calculations, and constant practice.

  4. Factor 4

    Increase of knowledge (IK)

    1. 13.

      Learning science means the acquisition of knowledge about science.

    2. 14.

      Learning science means acquiring knowledge that I did not know before.

    3. 15.

      I am learning science when the teacher tells me scientific facts that I did not know before.

    4. 16.

      Learning science helps me acquire more facts about nature.

    5. 17.

      I am learning science when I increase my knowledge of natural phenomena and topics related to nature.

    6. 18.

      For me, learning science means getting new knowledge.

  5. Factor 5

    Applying (A)

    1. 19.

      Learning science means acquiring knowledge and skills to enhance the quality of our lives.

    2. 20.

      Learning science means learning how to apply knowledge and skills I know to unknown problems.

    3. 21.

      We learn science to improve the quality of our lives.

  6. Factor 6

    Understanding (U)

    1. 22.

      Learning science means an understanding of some problems or phenomena that couldn’t be solved before.

    2. 23.

      Learning science means enlarging my knowledge scope and experience.

    3. 24.

      Learning science helps me understand more natural phenomena and knowledge about nature.

  7. Factor 7

    Seeing in a new way (S)

    1. 25.

      Learning science means using a new viewpoint to view natural phenomena or topics related to nature.

    2. 26.

      Learning science means changing my way of viewing natural phenomena and topics related to nature.

    3. 27.

      Learning science means finding a better way to view nature or topics relating to nature.

    4. 28.

      Learning science means finding a more reasonable way to explain the topics in our lives.

The Questionnaire for the SROLS: Self-Regulation of Learning Science

  1. Factor 1

    Basic self-regulation (BSR)

    1. 1.

      I try to think through a topic and decide what I am supposed to learn from it rather than just reading it over when studying for this course.

    2. 2.

      When studying for this course I try to determine which concepts I don’t understand well.

    3. 3.

      When I study for this class, I set goals for myself in order to direct my activities in each study period.

    4. 4.

      If I get confused taking notes in class, I make sure I sort it out afterwards.

  2. Factor 2

    Advanced self-regulation (ASR)

    1. 5.

      When reading for this course, I make up questions to help focus my reading.

    2. 6.

      When I become confused about something I’m reading for this class, I go back and try to figure it out.

    3. 7.

      If course readings are difficult to understand, I change the way I read the material.

    4. 8.

      Before I study new course material thoroughly, I often skim it to see how it is organized.

    5. 9.

      I ask myself questions to make sure I understand the material I have been studying in this class.

The Questionnaire for the SLS: Strategies of Learning Science

  1. Factor 1

    Deep strategy (DS)

    1. 1.

      I like constructing theories to fit odd things together when I am learning science topics.

    2. 2.

      I try to find the relationship between the contents of what I have learned in science subjects

    3. 3.

      I try to relate new material to what I already know about the topic when I am studying science.

  2. Factor 2

    Minimizing scope of the study (Mini)

    1. 4.

      As long as I feel I am doing well enough to pass the examination, I devote as little time as I can to studying science subjects. There are many more interesting things to do with my time.

    2. 5.

      I generally will restrict my study to what is specially set as I think it is unnecessary to do anything extra in learning science.

    3. 6.

      I find that studying each topic in depth is not helpful or necessary when I am learning science. There are too many examinations to pass and too many subjects to be learned.

  3. Factor 3

    Rote learning (RL)

    1. 7.

      When learning science, I would like my teacher to tell us the focus of examinations, then we can be better prepared for the exams.

    2. 8.

      When learning science, I will recite or memorize related contents repeatedly until I remember all the contents in the learning unit.

    3. 9.

      When learning science, I focus on the part related to the examination and memorize it in particular.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Li, M., Zheng, C., Liang, JC. et al. Conceptions, Self-Regulation, and Strategies of Learning Science Among Chinese High School Students. Int J of Sci and Math Educ 16, 69–87 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-016-9766-2

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-016-9766-2

Keywords

Search

Navigation