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Tissue thyroid hormones and thyronamines

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Abstract

It has been known for a long time that changes in cardiac function are a major component of the clinical presentation of thyroid disease. Increased heart rate and hyperdynamic circulation are hallmarks of hyperthyroidism, while bradycardia and decreased contractility characterize hypothyroidism. Recent findings have provided novel insights in the physiology and pathophysiology of heart regulation by thyroid hormones. In this review, we summarize the present knowledge on thyroxine (T4) transport and metabolism and on the biochemical pathways leading to genomic and non-genomic effects produced by 3,5,3′-triiodothyronine (T3) and by its active metabolites, particularly 3,5-diiodothyronine (T2) and 3-iodothyronamine (T1AM). On this basis, specific issues of special interest for cardiology are discussed, namely (1) relevance of the regulation of proteins involved in the control of calcium homeostasis and in pacemaker cell activity, due to non-genomic as well as to classical genomic effects; (2) stimulation of fatty acid oxidation by T2 and T1AM, the latter also causing a negative inotropic and chronotropic action at micromolar concentrations; (3) induction of D3 deiodinase in heart failure, potentially causing selective cardiac hypothyroidism, whose clinical implications are still controversial; and (4) cardioprotective effect of T1AM, possibly occurring at physiological concentrations, and relevance of T3 and of thyroid hormone receptor α1 in post-infarction repair.

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Abbreviations

Akt:

Ak strain transforming

AMI:

Acute myocardial infarction

CHF:

Chronic heart failure

CSF:

Cerebrospinal fluid

cTn:

Cardiac troponin

D1:

Type I deiodinase

D2:

Type II deiodinase

D3:

Type III deiodinase

EF:

Ejection fraction

ERK:

Extracellular regulated kinase

FT3 :

Free 3,5,3′-triiodothyronine

FT4 :

Free thyroxine

HCN2:

Hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated channel 2

HIF1:

Hypoxia-induced factor 1

I KI :

Inward rectifying potassium current

I Na :

Sodium current

I t :

Transient outward current

LAT:

Large neutral amino acid transporters

MAPK:

Mitogen-activated protein kinase

MCT:

Monocarboxylate transporter

MHC:

Myosin heavy chain

mTOR:

Mammalian target of rapamycin

NCX:

Sodium/calcium exchanger

NO:

Nitric oxide

NTCP:

Sodium/taurocholate-cotransporting polypeptide

OATP:

Organic anion-transporting polypeptide

PI3K:

Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase

rT3 :

3,3′,5′-Triiodothyronine

SERCA:

Sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium-ATPase

SLC:

Solute carrier

SR:

Sarcoplasmic reticulum

ssTn:

Slow skeletal troponin

T0AM:

Thyronamine

T1AM:

3-Iodothyronamine

T2AM:

3,5-Diiodothyronamine

T2 :

3,5-Diiodothyronine

T3 :

3,5,3′-Triiodothyronine

T4 :

Thyroxine

TAAR1:

Trace amine-associated receptor 1

TH:

Thyroid hormone

Tn:

Troponin

TR:

Thyroid hormone receptor

TRE:

Thyroid hormone response element

TSH:

Thyroid-stimulating hormone

VSMC:

Vascular smooth muscle cell

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    1. Scuola Superiore Sant’Anna, Pisa, Italy

      Alice Accorroni & Federica Saponaro

    2. Laboratory of Biochemistry, Department of Pathology, University of Pisa, via Roma 55, 56126, Pisa, Italy

      Riccardo Zucchi

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    Accorroni, A., Saponaro, F. & Zucchi, R. Tissue thyroid hormones and thyronamines. Heart Fail Rev 21, 373–390 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10741-016-9553-8

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