Abstract
To examine the awareness and attitudes about the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act in individuals who made contact with a Hereditary Breast and Ovarian Cancer Syndrome advocacy group. This is a descriptive study of individuals (n = 1,699) who were invited via email and advertisements to complete an online questionnaire available from August 2009 through December 2010. Response distributions of relevant subgroups were compared using cross tabulation and Chi-squared tests were used. The majority of respondents (69.2 %) had undergone genetic testing (n = 1,156) and 30.2 % had not. Of those who did not undergo genetic testing, the most common reason given for declining testing was cost (28.8 %), followed by concerns about insurance discrimination (19.5 %). More than half (60.5 %) were worried about health insurance discrimination when they first considered genetic testing and 28.6 % were worried about employment discrimination. Slightly more individuals were worried about health insurance discrimination if they had no prior knowledge of GINA. While “cost” was cited most frequently as the reason not to test, “fear of insurance discrimination” was the second most common reason. Knowledge of GINA among consumers is still limited and public education may help promote reduction in fear.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Hall MA, Rich SS (2000) Laws restricting health insurers’ use of genetic information: impact on genetic discrimination. Am J Hum Genet 66(1):293–307
Leib J, Hoodfar E, Haidle J, Nagy R (2008) The new genetic privacy law. Community Oncol 5(6):351–354
Hudson K, Javitt G, Burke W, Byers P (2007) ASHG Statement* on direct-to-consumer genetic testing in the United States. Obstet Gynecol 110(6):1392–1395
Lapham EV, Kozma C, Weiss JO (1996) Genetic discrimination: perspectives of consumers. Science 274(5287):621–624
Hall MA, McEwen JE, Barton JC et al (2005) Concerns in a primary care population about genetic discrimination by insurers. Genet Med 7(5):311–316
Penziner E, Williams JK, Erwin C et al (2008) Perceptions of discrimination among persons who have undergone predictive testing for Huntington’s disease. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 147(3):320–325
Hadley DW, Jenkins J, Dimond E et al (2003) Genetic counseling and testing in families with hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer. Arch Intern Med 163(5):573–582
Apse KA, Biesecker BB, Giardiello FM, Fuller BP, Bernhardt BA (2004) Perceptions of genetic discrimination among at-risk relatives of colorectal cancer patients. Genet Med 6(6):510–516
Peterson EA, Milliron KJ, Lewis KE, Goold SD, Merajver SD (2002) Health insurance and discrimination concerns and BRCA1/2 testing in a clinic population. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 11(1):79–87
Lynch HT, Lemon SJ, Durham C et al (1997) A descriptive study of BRCA1 testing and reactions to disclosure of test results. Cancer 79(11):2219–2228
Freedman AN, Wideroff L, Olson L et al (2003) US physicians’ attitudes toward genetic testing for cancer susceptibility. Am J Med Genet A 120A(1):63–71
Nedelcu R, Blazer KR, Schwerin BU et al (2004) Genetic discrimination: the clinician perspective. Clin Genet 66(4):311–317
Lowstuter KJ, Sand S, Blazer KR et al (2008) Influence of genetic discrimination perceptions and knowledge on cancer genetics referral practice among clinicians. Genet Med 10(9):691–698
Matloff ET, Shappell H, Brierley K, Bernhardt BA, McKinnon W, Peshkin BN (2000) What would you do? Specialists’ perspectives on cancer genetic testing, prophylactic surgery, and insurance discrimination. J Clin Oncol 18(12):2484–2492
Hall MA, Rich SS (2000) Genetic privacy laws and patients’ fear of discrimination by health insurers: the view from genetic counselors. J Law Med Ethics 28(3):245–257
Genetic Informaton Nondiscrimination Act of 2008. http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/z?d110:h.r.00493
Hudson KL (2007) Prohibiting genetic discrimination. N Engl J Med 356(20):2021–2023
Terry SF (2009) Genetic information nondiscrimination act insurance protections issued. Genet Test Mol Biomarkers 13(6):709–710
Clifton JM, VanBeuge SS, Mladenka C, Wosnik KK (2010) The Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act 2008: what clinicians should understand. J Am Acad Nurse Pract 22(5):246–249
Monsen RB (2009) The Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act helps us all. J Pediatr Nurs 24(2):151–152
Steck MB, Eggert JA (2011) The need to be aware and beware of the genetic information nondiscrimination act. Clin J Oncol Nurs 15(3):E34–E41
Dressler LG, Terry SF (2009) How will GINA influence participation in pharmacogenomics research and clinical testing? Clin Pharmacol Ther 86(5):472–475
O’Donnell MP (2010) The Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act—a wake-up call: great intentions, but a setback for health impact and cost-effectiveness of workplace health promotion. Am J Health Promot 24(3):iv–v
Payne PW Jr, Goldstein MM, Jarawan H, Rosenbaum S (2009) Health insurance and the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act of 2008: implications for public health policy and practice. Public Health Rep 124(2):328–331
Laedtke AL, O’Neill SM, Rubinstein WS, Vogel KJ (2011) Family Physicians’ Awareness and Knowledge of the Genetic Information Non-Discrimination Act (GINA). J Genet Couns
Huizenga CR, Lowstuter K, Banks KC, Lagos VI, Vandergon VO, Weitzel JN (2010) Evolving perspectives on genetic discrimination in health insurance among health care providers. Fam Cancer 9(2):253–260
Klitzman R (2010) Exclusion of genetic information from the medical record: ethical and medical dilemmas. JAMA 304(10):1120–1121
Dancyger C, Smith JA, Jacobs C, Wallace M, Michie S (2010) Comparing family members’ motivations and attitudes towards genetic testing for hereditary breast and ovarian cancer: a qualitative analysis. Eur J Hum Genet 18(12):1289–1295
McInerney-Leo A, Biesecker BB, Hadley DW et al (2005) BRCA1/2 testing in hereditary breast and ovarian cancer families II: impact on relationships. Am J Med Genet A 133A(2):165–169
Speice J, McDaniel SH, Rowley PT, Loader S (2002) Family issues in a psychoeducation group for women with a BRCA mutation. Clin Genet 62(2):121–127
van Oostrom I, Meijers-Heijboer H, Duivenvoorden HJ et al (2007) A prospective study of the impact of genetic susceptibility testing for BRCA1/2 or HNPCC on family relationships. Psychooncology 16(4):320–328
Acknowledgments
Thank you to the National Society of Genetic Counselors’ Cancer Special Interest Group for providing a grant to support the statistical analysis of our data.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Electronic supplementary material
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Allain, D.C., Friedman, S. & Senter, L. Consumer awareness and attitudes about insurance discrimination post enactment of the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act. Familial Cancer 11, 637–644 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10689-012-9564-0
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10689-012-9564-0