Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Lead in New York City community garden chicken eggs: influential factors and health implications

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Environmental Geochemistry and Health Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Raising chickens for eggs in urban areas is becoming increasingly common. Urban chickens may be exposed to lead, a common urban soil contaminant. We measured lead concentrations in chicken eggs from New York City (NYC) community gardens and collected information on factors that might affect those concentrations. Lead was detected between 10 and 167 μg/kg in 48 % of NYC eggs. Measures of lead in eggs from a henhouse were significantly associated (p < 0.005) with lead concentrations in soil. The association between soil and egg lead has been evaluated only once before, by a study of a rural region in Belgium. In our study, the apparent lead soil-to-egg transfer efficiency was considerably lower than that found in Belgium, suggesting that there may be important geographic differences in this transfer. We developed models that suggested that, for sites like ours, lead concentrations in >50 % of eggs from a henhouse would exceed store-bought egg concentrations (<7–13 μg/kg; 3 % above detection limit) at soil lead concentrations >120 mg/kg and that the concentration in one of six eggs from a henhouse would exceed a 100 μg/kg guidance value at soil lead concentrations >410 mg/kg. Our models also suggested that the availability of dietary calcium supplements was another influential factor that reduced egg lead concentrations. Estimates of health risk from consuming eggs with the lead concentrations we measured generally were not significant. However, soil lead concentrations in this study were <600 mg/kg, and considerably higher concentrations are not uncommon. Efforts to reduce lead transfer to chicken eggs and associated exposure are recommended for urban chicken keepers.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Alaimo, K., Packnett, E., Miles, R. A., & Kruger, D. J. (2008). Fruit and vegetable intake among urban community gardeners. Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior, 40(2), 94–101. doi:10.1016/j.jneb.2006.12.003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ATSDR. (2007). Toxicological profile for lead. Atlanta, GA: Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Public Health Service, US Department of Health and Human Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bakalli, R. I., Pesti, G. M., & Ragland, W. L. (1995). The magnitude of lead toxicity in broiler chickens. Veterinary and Human Toxicology, 37(1), 15–19.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bartling, H. (2010). Chicken ordinance survey. Chicago, IL: DePaul University. Retrieved from http://www.cityofbatavia.net/content/articlefiles/7186-Suburban%20Chickens.pdf.

  • Beam, A., Garber, L., Sakugawa, J., & Kopral, C. (2013). Salmonella awareness and related management practices in U.S. urban backyard chicken flocks. Preventive Veterinary Medicine. doi:10.1016/j.prevetmed.2012.12.004.

  • CalEPA. (2007). Development of Health Criteria for School Site Risk Assessment Pursuant to Health and Safety Code Section 901(g): Child-Specific Benchmark Change in Blood Lead Concentration for School Site Risk Assessment. Integrated Risk Assessment Branch Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment California Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved from http://www.oehha.org/public_info/public/kids/pdf/PbHGV041307.pdf.

  • California DHS. (2004). Backyard chicken eggs in California: Reducing risks questions and answers. Environmental Health Investigations Branch, California Department of Health Services. Retrieved from http://www.ehib.org/papers/caeggs8by11c.pdf.

  • Carrington, C. D., & Bolger, P. M. (1992). An assessment of the hazards of lead in food. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology: RTP, 16(3), 265–272.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • CDC. (2012). CDC Response to Advisory Committee on Childhood Lead Poisoning Prevention Recommendations in “Low Level Lead Exposure Harms Children: A Renewed Call of Primary Prevention.” US Department of Health and Human Services, CDC.

  • De Vries, M. D., Kwakkel, R. P., & Kijlstra, A. (2006). Dioxins in organic eggs: A review. NJAS-Wageningen Journal of Life Sciences, 54(2), 207–221.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • EC. (2006). Commission regulation (EC) No 1881/2006 of 19 December 2006 setting maximum levels for certain contaminants in foodstuffs. Official Journal of the European Union, L, 364, 06–24.

    Google Scholar 

  • Food Standards Agency. (2004). 2000 Total diet study of 12 elements—aluminium, arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, manganese, mercury, nickel, selenium, tin and zinc (No. FSIS 48/04). UK Food Standards Agency.

  • Gittleman, M., Librizzi, L., & Stone, E. (2010). Community garden survey New York City results 2009/2010. GrowNYC. Retrieved from http://www.greenthumbnyc.org/pdf/GrowNYC_community_garden_report.pdf.

  • Hsu, J.-F., Chen, C., & Liao, P.-C. (2010). Elevated PCDD/F levels and distinctive PCDD/F congener profiles in free range eggs. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 58(13), 7708–7714. doi:10.1021/jf100456b.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jusko, T. A., Henderson, C. R., Jr, Lanphear, B. P., Cory-Slechta, D. A., Parsons, P. J., & Canfield, R. L. (2008). Blood lead concentration <10 μg/dL and child intelligence at 6 years of age. Environmental Health Perspectives, 116(2), 243–248. doi:10.1289/ehp.10424.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kijlstra, A., Traag, W. A., & Hoogenboom, L. A. P. (2007). Effect of flock size on dioxin levels in eggs from chickens kept outside. Poultry Science, 86(9), 2042–2048.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Larsen, E. H., Andersen, N. L., Møller, A., Petersen, A., Mortensen, G. K., & Petersen, J. (2002). Monitoring the content and intake of trace elements from food in Denmark. Food Additives & Contaminants, 19(1), 33–46. doi:10.1080/02652030110087447.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Leblanc, J.-C., Guérin, T., Noël, L., Calamassi-Tran, G., Volatier, J.-L., & Verger, P. (2005). Dietary exposure estimates of 18 elements from the 1st French total diet study. Food Additives & Contaminants, 22(7), 624–641. doi:10.1080/02652030500135367.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mahaffey, K. R., Gartside, P. S., & Glueck, C. J. (1986). Blood lead levels and dietary calcium intake in 1- to 11-year-old children: The second national health and nutrition examination survey, 1976 to 1980. Pediatrics, 78(2), 257–262.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Miranda, M. L., Kim, D., Galeano, M. A. O., Paul, C. J., Hull, A. P., & Morgan, S. P. (2007). The relationship between early childhood blood lead levels and performance on end-of-grade tests. Environmental Health Perspectives, 115(8), 1242–1247. doi:10.1289/ehp.9994.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • NYSDEC. (2006). New York state brownfield cleanup program development of soil cleanup objectives technical support document. Appendix D. New York State Department of Environmental Conservation. Retrieved from http://www.dec.ny.gov/docs/remediation_hudson_pdf/appendixde.pdf.

  • Perello, G., Martí-Cid, R., Llobet, J. M., & Domingo, J. L. (2008). Effects of various cooking processes on the concentrations of arsenic, cadmium, mercury, and lead in foods. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 56(23), 11262–11269. doi:10.1021/jf802411q.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Plaimast, H., Sirichakwal, P. P., Puwastien, P., Judprasong, K., & Wasantwisut, E. (2009). In vitro bioaccessibility of intrinsically zinc-enriched egg and effect of cooking. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 22(7–8), 627–631. doi:10.1016/j.jfca.2009.04.007.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pollock, S. L., Stephen, C., Skuridina, N., & Kosatsky, T. (2012). Raising chickens in city backyards: The public health role. Journal of Community Health, 37(3), 734–742. doi:10.1007/s10900-011-9504-1.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Quarterman, J., Morrison, J. N., & Humphries, W. R. (1978). The influence of high dietary calcium and phosphate on lead uptake and release. Environmental Research, 17(1), 60–67. doi:10.1016/0013-9351(78)90061-0.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schoeters, G., & Hoogenboom, R. (2006). Contamination of free-range chicken eggs with dioxins and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls. Molecular Nutrition & Food Research, 50(10), 908–914. doi:10.1002/mnfr.200500201.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, E., Kempson, I. M., Juhasz, A. L., Weber, J., Rofe, A., Gancarz, D., et al. (2011). In vivo-in vitro and XANES spectroscopy assessments of lead bioavailability in contaminated periurban soils. Environmental Science and Technology, 45(14), 6145–6152. doi:10.1021/es200653k.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stephens, R. D., Petreas, M. X., & Hayward, D. G. (1995). Biotransfer and bioaccumulation of dioxins and furans from soil: Chickens as a model for foraging animals. Science of the Total Environment, 175(3), 253–273. doi:10.1016/0048-9697(95)04925-8.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Symes, C. T., Hughes, J. C., Mack, A. L., & Marsden, S. J. (2006). Geophagy in birds of Crater Mountain wildlife management area, Papua New Guinea. Journal of Zoology, 268(1), 87–96. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2005.00002.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trampel, D. W., Imerman, P. M., Carson, T. L., Kinker, J. A., & Ensley, S. M. (2003). Lead contamination of chicken eggs and tissues from a small farm flock. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation, 15(5), 418–422.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • US FDA. (2006). Supporting document for recommended maximum level for lead in candy likely to be consumed frequently by small children [Docket No. 2005D-0481] (WebContent). US Food and Drug Administration. Retrieved from http://www.fda.gov/food/foodsafety/foodcontaminantsadulteration/metals/lead/ucm172050.htm.

  • US FDA. (2007). Total diet study statistics on element results revision 4.1, market baskets 1991–3 through 2005-4. College Park, MD: US Food and Drug Administration. Retrieved from http://www.fda.gov/downloads/Food/FoodSafety/FoodContaminantsAdulteration/TotalDietStudy/UCM243059.pdf.

  • US FDA. (2010) Total diet study statistics on element results market baskets 2006-1 through 2008-4. College Park, MD: US Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition. Retrieved from http://www.fda.gov/downloads/Food/FoodSafety/FoodContaminantsAdulteration/TotalDietStudy/UCM184301.pdf.

  • USDA & HHS. (2010). Dietary guidelines for Americans 2010. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office: US Department of Agriculture and US Department of Health and Human Services.

  • US EPA. (1998). Final report sources of lead in soil: A literature review EPA 747-R-98-001a. Washington, DC: National Center for Environmental Assessment, US Environmental Protection Agency.

    Google Scholar 

  • US EPA. (2005). Human health risk assessment protocol for hazardous waste combustion facilities EPA530-R-05-006. Washington, DC: Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response, US Environmental Protection Agency.

    Google Scholar 

  • US EPA. (2008). Child-specific exposure factors handbook EPA/600/R-06/096F. Washingon, DC: National Center for Environmental Assessment, US Environmental Protection Agency.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Overmeire, I., Pussemier, L., Hanot, V., De Temmerman, L., Hoenig, M., & Goeyens, L. (2006). Chemical contamination of free-range eggs from Belgium. Food Additives & Contaminants, 23(11), 1109–1122. doi:10.1080/02652030600699320.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Waegeneers, N., De Steur, H., De Temmerman, L., Van Steenwinkel, S., Gellynck, X., & Viaene, J. (2009a). Transfer of soil contaminants to home-produced eggs and preventive measures to reduce contamination. Science of the Total Environment, 407(15), 4438–4446. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2008.12.041.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Waegeneers, N., Hoenig, M., Goeyens, L., & De Temmerman, L. (2009b). Trace elements in home-produced eggs in Belgium: Levels and spatiotemporal distribution. Science of the Total Environment, 407(15), 4397–4402. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2008.10.031.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ysart, G., Miller, P., Croasdale, M., Crews, H., Robb, P., Baxter, M., et al. (2000). 1997 UK total diet study—dietary exposures to aluminium, arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, mercury, nickel, selenium, tin and zinc. Food Additives & Contaminants, 17(9), 775–786.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zia, M. H., Codling, E. E., Scheckel, K. G., & Chaney, R. L. (2011). In vitro and in vivo approaches for the measurement of oral bioavailability of lead (Pb) in contaminated soils: A review. Environmental Pollution, 159(10), 2320–2327. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2011.04.043.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to acknowledge the assistance of colleagues from the Healthy Soils, Healthy Communities project partner organizations, particularly Stephen Shost and Jan Storm of the New York State Department of Health and Edie Stone of New York City’s GreenThumb program. We are also grateful to Just Food for their contributions to this project, including the time and energy of Gregory Anderson and “chicken interns” Meredith Wells, Marlie Wilson, L. Reed, and Rafael Aponte. Most importantly, we thank the many community gardeners and chicken keepers who have participated in this project. Funding for this research was provided by the National Institutes of Health/National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Award Number R21ES017921 from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS). The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of NIEHS or the National Institutes of Health.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Bureau of Toxic Substance Assessment, New York State Department of Health, Empire State Plaza, Corning Tower, Room 1743, Albany, NY, 12237, USA

    Henry M. Spliethoff, Rebecca G. Mitchell & Lisa N. Ribaudo

  2. Just Food, 1155 Avenue of the Americas, 3rd Floor, New York, NY, 10036, USA

    Owen Taylor

  3. Cornell Waste Management Institute, Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, Cornell University, Bradfield Hall, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA

    Hannah A. Shayler

  4. New York State Department of Agriculture and Markets, 7 Harriman Campus Road, Albany, NY, 12206, USA

    Virginia Greene & Debra Oglesby

Authors
  1. Henry M. Spliethoff
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Rebecca G. Mitchell
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Lisa N. Ribaudo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Owen Taylor
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Hannah A. Shayler
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Virginia Greene
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Debra Oglesby
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Henry M. Spliethoff.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary material 1 (PDF 178 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Spliethoff, H.M., Mitchell, R.G., Ribaudo, L.N. et al. Lead in New York City community garden chicken eggs: influential factors and health implications. Environ Geochem Health 36, 633–649 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-013-9586-z

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-013-9586-z

Keywords

Search

Navigation