Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Accounting for Beneficial Effects of Worked Examples in Tutored Problem Solving

  • Review Article
  • Published:
Educational Psychology Review Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Recent studies have tested the addition of worked examples to tutored problem solving, a more effective instructional approach than the untutored problem solving used in prior worked example research. These studies involved Cognitive Tutors, software designed to support problem solving while minimizing extraneous cognitive load by providing prompts for problem sub-goals, step-based immediate feedback, and context-sensitive hints. Results across eight studies in three different domains indicate that adding examples to Cognitive Tutors is beneficial, particularly for decreasing the instructional time needed and perhaps also for achieving more robust learning outcomes. These studies bolster the practical importance of examples in learning, but are also of theoretical interest. By using a stronger control condition than previous studies, these studies provide a basis for refining Cognitive Load Theory explanations of the benefits of examples. Perhaps, in addition to other reasons, examples may help simply because they more quickly provide novices with information needed to induce generalized knowledge.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Aleven, V., & Koedinger, K. R. (2002). An effective meta-cognitive strategy: Learning by doing and explaining with a computer-based cognitive tutor. Cognitive Science, 26, 147–179.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, J. R., Corbett, A. T., Koedinger, K. R., & Pelletier, R. (1995). Cognitive tutors: Lessons learned. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 4, 167–207.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, J. R., Fincham, J. M., & Douglass, S. (1997). The role of examples and rules in the acquisition of a cognitive skill. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 23, 932–945.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anthony, L. (2008). Developing handwriting-based Intelligent Tutors to enhance mathematics learning. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Carnegie Mellon University, USA.

  • Atkinson, R. K., Derry, S. J., Renkl, A., & Wortham, D. W. (2000). Learning from examples: Instructional principles from the worked examples research. Review of Educational Research, 70, 181–214.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baker, R. S., Corbett, A. T., Koedinger, K. R., & Wagner, A. Z. (2004). Off-task behavior in the Cognitive Tutor classroom: When students “game the system”. In: Proceedings of ACM CHI 2004: Computer-Human Interaction. pp. 383–390.

  • Bjork, R. A. (1994). Memory and metamemory considerations in the training of human beings. In J. Metcalfe & A. Shimamura (Eds.), Metacognition: Knowing about knowing (pp. 185–205). Cambridge: MIT.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bransford, J. D., & Schwartz, D. L. (1999). Rethinking transfer: A simple proposal with multiple implications. In A. Iran-Nejad & P. D. Pearson (Eds.), Review of research in education, Vol. 24 (pp. 61–100). Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Butcher, K., & Aleven, V. (2007). Integrating visual and verbal knowledge during classroom learning with computer tutors. In D. S. McNamara & J. G. Trafton (Eds.), Proceedings of the 29th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 137–142). Austin: Cognitive Science Society.

    Google Scholar 

  • Butcher, K., & Aleven, V. (2008). Diagram interaction during intelligent tutoring in geometry: Support for knowledge retention and deep transfer. In C. Schunn (Ed.), Proceedings of the 30th Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society, CogSci 2008 (pp. 894–899). Austin: Cognitive Science Society.

    Google Scholar 

  • Catrambone, R. (1998). The subgoal learning model: Creating better examples so that students can solve novel problems. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 127, 355–376.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chi, M., & VanLehn, K. (2007). Accelerated future learning via explicit instruction of a problem solving strategy. In R. Luckin, K. R. Koedinger, & J. Greer (Eds.), Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Artificial Intelligence in Education (pp. 409–416). Amsterdam: IOS.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chi, M. T. H., Bassok, M., Lewis, M. W., Reimann, P., & Glaser, R. (1989). Self-explanations: How students study and use examples in learning to solve problems. Cognitive Science, 13, 145–182.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chi, M. T. H., de Leeuw, N., Chiu, M., & LaVancher, C. (1994). Eliciting self-explanations improves understanding. Cognitive Science, 18, 439–477.

    Google Scholar 

  • Corbett, A. T., & Anderson, J. R. (1995). Knowledge tracing: Modeling the acquisition of procedural knowledge. User Modeling and User-Adapted Interaction, 4, 253–278.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Corbett, A. T., Wagner, A., & Raspat, J. (2003). The Impact of analyzing example solutions on problem solving in a pre-algebra tutor. In: Proceedings of AIED 2003: The 11th International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Education. pp. 133–140.

  • Dweck, C. S., & Leggett, E. L. (1988). A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological Review, 95, 256–273.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Elliot, A. J., & McGregor, H. A. (2001). A 2 × 2 achievement goal framework. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 501–519.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grandjean, E. (1979). Fatigue in industry. British Journal of Industrial Medicine, 36, 175–186.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hilbert, T. S., Renkl, A., Schworm, S., Kessler, S., & Reiss, K. (2008). Learning to teach with worked-out examples: A computer-based learning environment for teachers. Journal of Computer-Assisted Learning, 24, 316–332.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kalyuga, S., & Sweller, J. (2005). Rapid dynamic assessment of expertise to improve the efficiency of adaptive e-learning. Educational Technology, Research and Development, 53, 83–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kalyuga, S., Ayres, P., Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (2003). The expertise reversal effect. Educational Psychologist, 38, 23–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kalyuga, S., Renkl, A., & Paas, F. (2010). Facilitating flexible problem solving: A cognitive load perspective. Educational Psychology Review, 22, 175–186.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E. (2006). Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. Educational Psychologist, 41, 75–86.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koedinger, K. R., & Aleven, V. (2007). Exploring the assistance dilemma in experiments with cognitive tutors. Educational Psychology Review, 19, 239–264.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koedinger, K. R., Aleven, V., Roll, I., & Baker, R. (2009). In vivo experiments on whether supporting metacognition in intelligent tutoring systems yields robust learning. In: D. J. Hacker, J. Dunlosky, & A. C. Graesser (Eds.) Handbook of metacognition in education (pp. 897–964). The Educational Psychology Series. New York: Routledge.

  • McLaren, B. M., Lim, S., & Koedinger, K. R. (2008). When and how often should worked examples be given to students? New results and a summary of the current state of research. In B. C. Love, K. McRae, & V. M. Sloutsky (Eds.), Proceedings of the 30th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 2176–2181). Austin: Cognitive Science Society.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mwangi, W., & Sweller, J. (1998). Learning to solve compare word problems: The effect of example format and generating self-explanations. Cognition and Instruction, 16, 173–199.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paas, F. (1992). Training strategies for attaining transfer of problem-solving skill in statistics: A cognitive-load approach. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 429–434.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Renkl, A. (1997). Learning from worked-out examples: A study on individual differences. Cognitive Science, 21, 1–29.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Renkl, A. (2005). The worked-out-example principle in multimedia learning. In R. Mayer (Ed.), Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Renkl, A. (2010). Instruction based on examples. In R. E. Mayer & P. A. Alexander (Eds.), Handbook of research on learning and instruction. New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Renkl, A., & Atkinson, R. K. (2003). Structuring the transition from example study to problem solving in cognitive skills acquisition: A cognitive load perspective. Educational Psychologist, 38, 15–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Renkl, A., & Atkinson, R. K. (2007). Cognitive skill acquisition: Ordering instructional events in example-based learning. In F. E. Ritter, J. Nerb, E. Lehtinen, & T. O’Shea (Eds.), In order to learn: How ordering effect in machine learning illuminate human learning and vice versa. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Renkl, A., & Atkinson, R. K. (2010). Learning from worked-out examples and problem solving. In J. Plass, R. Moreno, & R. Brünken (Eds.), Cognitive load theory and research in educational psychology (pp. 91–108). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Renkl, A., Stark, R., Gruber, H., & Mandl, H. (1998). Learning from worked-out examples: The effects of example variability and elicited self-explanations. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 23, 90–108.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roediger, H. L., & Karpicke, J. D. (2006). The power of testing memory: Basic research and implications for educational practice. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1, 181–210.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roy, M., & Chi, M. T. H. (2005). Self-explanation in a multi-media context. In R. Mayer (Ed.), Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning (pp. 271–286). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Salden, R. J. C. M., Aleven, V., Schwonke, R., & Renkl, A. (2010). The expertise reversal effect and worked examples in tutored problem solving. Instructional Science, 38, 289–307.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schnotz, W. (2010). Reanalyzing the expertise-reversal effect. Educational Psychology Review, 38, 315–323.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwonke, R., Renkl, A., Krieg, C., Wittwer, J., Aleven, V., & Salden, R. J. C. M. (2009). Theworked-example effect: Not an artefact of lousy control conditions. Computers in HumanBehavior, 25, 258–266.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shih, B., Koedinger, K. R., & Scheines, R. (2008). A response time model for bottom-out hints as worked examples. In: Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Educational Data Mining, Montreal, Canada.

  • Sweller, J. (1988). Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning. Cognitive Science, 12, 257–285.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sweller, J. (2010). Element interactivity and intrinsic, extraneous and germane cognitive load. Educational Psychology Review, 22, 123–138.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sweller, J., & Cooper, G. A. (1985). The use of worked examples as a substitute for problem solving in learning algebra. Cognition and Instruction, 2, 59–89.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sweller, J., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Paas, F. (1998). Cognitive architecture and instructional design. Educational Psychology Review, 10, 251–296.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trafton, J. G., & Reiser, B. J. (1993). The contributions of studying examples and solving problems to skill acquisition. In M. Polson (Ed.), Proceedings of the Fifteenth Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • VanLehn, K., Lynch, C., Schulze, K., Shapiro, J. A., Shelby, A., Taylor, D., et al. (2005). The Andes physics tutoring project: Five years of evaluations. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 15, 1–47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Sweller, J. (2005). Cognitive load theory and complex learning: Recent developments and future direction. Educational Psychology Review, 17, 147–178.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Merriënboer, J. J. G., Schuurman, J. G., de Croock, M. B. M., & Paas, F. (2002). Redirecting learners’ attention during training: Effects on cognitive load, transfer test performance and training efficiency. Learning and Instruction, 12, 11–37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ward, M., & Sweller, J. (1990). Structuring effective worked examples. Cognition and Instruction, 7, 1–39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Watanabe, A., Kato, N., & Kato, T. (2002). Effects of creatine on mental fatigue and cerebral hemoglobin oxygenation. Neuroscience Research, 42, 279–285.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Computer Science, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, 100 Institute Road, Worcester, MA, 01609, USA

    Ron J. C. M. Salden

  2. Human-Computer Interaction Institute, Carnegie Mellon University, 5000 Forbes Ave, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA

    Kenneth R. Koedinger, Vincent Aleven & Bruce M. McLaren

  3. Psychological Institute, University of Freiburg, Engelbergerstr. 41, D-79085, Freiburg, Germany

    Alexander Renkl

Authors
  1. Ron J. C. M. Salden
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Kenneth R. Koedinger
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Alexander Renkl
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Vincent Aleven
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Bruce M. McLaren
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ron J. C. M. Salden.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Salden, R.J.C.M., Koedinger, K.R., Renkl, A. et al. Accounting for Beneficial Effects of Worked Examples in Tutored Problem Solving. Educ Psychol Rev 22, 379–392 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-010-9143-6

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-010-9143-6

Keywords

Search

Navigation