Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

The Effect of Nazism on Medical Progress in Gastroenterology: The Inefficiency of Evil

  • Esophageal, Gastric, and Duodenal Disorders
  • Published:
Digestive Diseases and Sciences Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

While Nazism is almost universally recognized as a great evil, control of science and medicine by the totalitarian Nazi state might be viewed as increasing efficiency. Scientific methods are applied to semiquantitatively analyze the effects of Nazism on medical progress in gastroenterology to document its pernicious effects, and to honor outstanding gastroenterologists persecuted or murdered by the Nazis. This is a retrospective, quasi-case-controlled study. To disprove the null hypothesis that Nazism was efficient, retarded progress in gastroenterology is demonstrated by (1) enumerating the loss to Nazi Germany from 1933 to 1944 due to violent death, incarceration, or forced exile of key researchers in gastroenterology, defined by authorship of at least one book or 10 articles in peer-reviewed journals or other outstanding scholarship; (2) demonstrating a statistically significantly greater loss in Nazi Germany than in non-Nazi (Weimar German Republic from 1921 to 1932) or anti-Nazi (democratic America from 1933 to 1944) control groups; and (3) demonstrating that each loss was directly due to Nazism (murder, incarceration, or exile due to documented threat of violence/death or revocation of medical license). Sources of error in analyzing events from 70 years ago are described. Nazi Germany and Nazi-occupied Europe gained 0 and lost 53 key gastroenterology researchers, including 32 lost due to forced exile, 11 murdered by the Nazis, 5 lost due to suicide under threat of violence, 3 in hiding from the Gestapo, and 2 for other reasons. Fifty-two of the gastroenterologists were persecuted solely because they were Jewish or of Jewish descent and one because he was a Christian anti-Nazi Polish patriot. Particularly severe losses occurred in endoscopy. The loss in Nazi Germany from 1933 to 1944 was significantly greater than that in non-Nazi Germany and Austria from 1921 to 1932 (53 versus 4; odds ratio = 25.27; 95% CI: 9.01–70.48; P < 0.0001) and was significantly greater than that in anti-Nazi America from 1933 to 1944 (53 versus 0; odds ratio > 104.0; 95% CI: 17.62–608.95; P < 0.0001). Lost physicians in Nazi Germany (with reasons for loss) included Ismar Boas, the father of modern gastroenterology (suicide after medical license revoked); Hans Popper, the father of hepatopathology (fled impending arrest); Rudolph Nissen, the father of antireflux surgery (fled after job dismissal); Rudolph Schindler, the father of semiflexible endoscopy (fled after incarceration); Heinrich Lamm, the first to experimentally demonstrate fiberoptic transmission and the first to suggest its applicability for gastroscopy (fled after medical license revoked); Hermann Strauss, a pioneer in rigid sigmoidoscopy (suicide in a concentration camp); A.A.H. van den Bergh, who discovered the van den Bergh reaction to differentiate indirect from direct bilirubin (died in hiding in Nazi-occupied Holland); and Kurt Isselbacher, subsequently the Chief of Gastroenterology at Harvard Medical School (fled in childhood after a grandfather murdered by Nazis). All four refugee physicians who were reexposed to Nazi domination, after a regime change in their country of refuge, fled again or committed suicide. The Nazi damage to German and Austrian gastroenterology was immense, e.g., 13 of 14 major international discoveries in diagnostic gastroscopy were made by Germans or Austrians before the Third Reich, versus only 1 of 8 subsequently (odds ratio = 91; 95%

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Berger RL: Nazi science: The Dachau hypothermia experiments. N Engl J Med 322:1435–1440, 1990

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shevell M: Racial hygiene, active euthanasia, and Julius Hallervorden. Neurology 42:2214–2219, 1992

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Peiffer J: Neuropathology in the Third Reich: Memorial to the victims of National-Socialist atrocities in Germany who were used by medical science. Brain Pathol 1:125–131, 1991

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dawidowicz L: The War Against the Jews, 1933–1945. New York, Bantam, 1975

    Google Scholar 

  • Zentner C, Beduerftig F: The Encyclopedia of the Third Reich. New York, Macmillan, 1991

    Google Scholar 

  • Nelson WH: Small Wonder: The Amazing Story of the Volkswagen. Boston, Little, Brown, 1965, p 77

    Google Scholar 

  • Chelain A: Was the Me262 the first airplane to break the sound barrier? Revisionist 1:69–71, 2003

    Google Scholar 

  • Silver JR: The decline of German medicine, 1933–45. JR Coll Physicians Edinb 33:54–66, 2003

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Burleigh M: Death and Deliverance. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1994, p 13

    Google Scholar 

  • Macklin R: Which way down the slippery slope? In When Medicine Went Mad. Caplan A (ed). Clifton, NJ, Humana Press, 1995, p 187

    Google Scholar 

  • Kirsner JB: The Development of American Gastroenterology. New York, Raven Press, 1990, pp 140, 238

    Google Scholar 

  • Cappell MS, Simon T: Colonic toxicity of administered medications and chemicals. Am J Gastroenterol 88:1684–1699, 1993

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Olitzki L, Bernkopf H: Precipitation in infective hepatitis. J Infect Dis 77:60–67, 1945

    Google Scholar 

  • Levinson SO, Janota M, Weston RE, Necheles H: Studies on therapy of hemorrhagic shock: Effects of iso-osmotic and of concentrated serum and plasma in dehydrated dogs. Surg Gynecol Obstet 77:475–480, 1943

    Google Scholar 

  • Kagan SR: Jewish Medicine. Boston, Medico-Historical Press, 1952

    Google Scholar 

  • Sobotka H: Physiological Chemistry of Bile. Baltimore, Williams & Wilkins, 1937

    Google Scholar 

  • Baron JH: European roots of American gastroenterology. Z Gastroenterol 39:853–860, 2001

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Adlersberg D (ed): Malabsorption Syndrome: Contributions to the Symposium by Members of the Staff of the Mount Sinai Hospital, New York. New York, Mount Sinai Hospital, 1957

    Google Scholar 

  • Lazarowitz L, Malowist S: Martyred physicians. In The Martyrdom of Jewish Physicians in Poland. Wulman L, Tenenbaum J (eds). New York, Exposition Press, 1963

    Google Scholar 

  • Liebermann-Meffert D: Rudolph Nissen: Reminiscences 100 years after his birth. Dis Esophagus 9:237–246, 1996

    Google Scholar 

  • Schein M, Schein H, Wise L: Rudolph Nissen: The man behind the fundoplication. Surgery 125:347–353, 1999

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nissen R: Helle Blatter-dunkle Blatter: Erinneerungen eines Chirurgen [Light Pages—Dark Pages: Memoirs of a Surgeon]. Stuttgart, Deutsch Verlagsanstalt, 1969

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmid R, Schenker S: Hans Popper: In memoriam. Hepatology 9:669–679, 1989

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Boas I: Allgemeine Diagnostik und Therapie der Magenkrankheiten. Leipzig, 1890

  • Boas I: Spezielle Diagnostik und Therapie der Magenkrankheiten. Leipzig, 1893

  • Boas I: Ueber okkulte magenblutungen. Dtsch Med Wochenschr 27:315–317, 1901

    Google Scholar 

  • Boas I: Die Lehre von den Okkulten Blutungen. Leipzig, Georg Thieme, 1914, p 117

    Google Scholar 

  • Boas I: Diagnostik und Therapie der Magenkrankheiten. 9th ed. Leipzig, Thieme, 1925

    Google Scholar 

  • Avery H: Tribute to Ismar Boas (1858–1938). Gastroenterologia 90:49–53, 1958

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Anonymous: Foreign letters: New regulations for Jewish physicians. JAMA 106:1931–1932, 1936

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoenig LJ, Boyle JD: The life and death of Ismar Boas. J Clin Gastroenterol 10:16–24, 1988

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Greegor DH: Diagnosis of large-bowel cancer in the asymptomatic patient. JAMA 201:943–945, 1967

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Popper H, Mandel E, Mayer H: Ueber die diagnostische bedeutung der plasmakreatininbestimmung. Ztschft Klin Med 133:56, 1937

    Google Scholar 

  • Popper H: The histological distribution of vitamin A in human organs under normal and pathological conditions. Arch Pathol 51:766, 1941

    Google Scholar 

  • Waldstein SS, Popper H, Szanto PB, Steigmann F: Liver cirrhosis: Relation between function and structure based on biopsy studies. Arch Intern Med 87:844–862, 1951

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • De Groote J, Desmet VS, Gedigk P, et al.: A classification of chronic hepatitis. Lancet 2:626–628, 1968

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomas LB, Popper H, Berk PD, Selikoff I, Falk H. Vinyl-chloride induced liver disease: From idiopathic portal hypertension (Banti's syndrome) to angiosarcomas. N Engl J Med 292:17–22, 1975

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Alter HJ, Purcell RH, Holland PV, Popper H: Transmissible agent in non-A, non-B hepatitis. Lancet 1:459–463, 1978

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Popper H, Gerber MA, Thung SN: The relation of hepatocellular carcinoma to infections with hepatitis B and related viruses in man and animals. Hepatology 2:1, 1982

    Google Scholar 

  • Rizzetto M, Verma G, Recchia S, et al.: Chronic hepatitis in carriers of hepatitis B surface antigen, with intrahepatic expression of the delta antigen: An active and progressive disease unresponsive to immunosuppressive treatment. Ann Intern Med 98:437–441, 1983

    Google Scholar 

  • Pennington JR: Inflating rectal specula. JAMA 30:871–874, 1899

    Google Scholar 

  • Kelly HA: A new method of examination and treatment of diseases of the rectum and sigmoid flexure. Ann Surg 21:468–478, 1895

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Katon RM, Keefe EB, Malnyk CS: Historical perspective: From rigid to flexible sigmoidoscopy. In Flexible Sigmoidoscopy. Orlando, FL, Grune & Stratton, 1985, pp 1–8

    Google Scholar 

  • Keller: Hermann Strauss zum 100 geburtstag. Deutsche Med Wochenschr 93:2237–2238, 1968

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Niwa H, Sakai Y, Williams CB: History of endoscopy in the colon and rectum. In Colonoscopy: Principles and Practice Waye JD, Rex D, Williams CB (eds). Malden, MA, Blackwell, 2003, pp 1–20

    Google Scholar 

  • Strauss H: Die Procto-Sygomoscopie und ihre bedeutung fur die diagnostik und therapie der krankheiten des rectum und der flexura sigmoidea, Ed 1, 1910

  • Strauss H: Erkrankungen des Rectum und Sigmoideum, 1922

  • Strauss H, Hannemann E: Vorlesungen uber Diatbehandlung Innerer Krankheiten gehalten vor reiferen Studierenden und Aerzten: Mit einem Anhang, Winke fur die diatetische Kuche, 1908

  • Silver DB: Refuge in Hell: How Berlin's Jewish-Hospital Outlasted the Nazis. Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 2003

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis A: Rudolph Schindler's role in the development of gastroenterology. Bull Hist Med 46:153, 1972

    Google Scholar 

  • Elsner H: Die Gastroskopie. Leipzig, Georg Thieme, 1911

    Google Scholar 

  • Schindler R: Lehrbuch und Atlas der Gastroscopie. Munich, I. F. Lehmann, 1923

    Google Scholar 

  • Gordon ME, Kirsner JB: Rudolph Schindler, pioneer endoscopist: Glimpses of the man and his work. Gastroenterology 77:354–361, 1979

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kirsner JB: The origin of 20th century discoveries transforming clinical gastroenterology. Am J Gastroenterol 93:862–871, 1998

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schindler R: Ein vollig ungefahrliches flexibles gastroskop. Munchen Med Wochenschr 79:1268–1269, 1932

    Google Scholar 

  • Edmonson JM: Wolf-Schindler semi-flexible gastroscope, 1932. Gastrointest Endosc 51(5):19A—20A, 2000

    Google Scholar 

  • Modlin IM: A Brief History of Endoscopy. Milano, Italy, MutiMed, 2000

    Google Scholar 

  • Kirsner JB: American gastroscopy: Yesterday and today. Gastrointest Endosc 37:643–648, 1991

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gerstner P: The American Society for Gastrointestinal Endoscopy: A history. Gastrointest Endosc 37:S1—S26, 1991

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schindler R: An American built gastroscope. Am J Dig Dis 7:256–257, 1940

    Google Scholar 

  • Hirschowitz BI: Development and application of endoscopy. Gastroenterology 104:337–342, 1993

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hirschowitz BI: Historical perspectives on technology in GI endoscopy. Techn Gastrointest Endosc 5:56–64, 2003

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haubrich WS, Edmonson JM: History of endoscopy. In Gastroenterologic Endoscopy. Ed 2. Sivak MV Jr (ed). Philadelphia, W. B. Saunders, 2000, pp 2–15

    Google Scholar 

  • Lamm H: Biegsame optische gerate (flexible optical instruments). Z Instrumentenk 50:579–581, 1930

    Google Scholar 

  • Anonymous: Dr. H. Lamm, Obituary. Tex Med 71:120, 1975

  • Hirschowitz BI, Peters CW, Curtiss LE: Preliminary reports on a long fiberscope for examination of the stomach and duodenum. Univ Mich Med Bull 23:178–180, 1957

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bozzini PH: Lichtleiter, ein erfindung zur anshuauung innen theile und krankheiten nebst der abbildung von Dr. Bozzini, art zu Frankfurt a. Mayn [The light conductor, an invention for viewing interior parts and diseases, with an illustration by Dr. Bozzini, physician in Frankfurt am Main]. J Pract Arzneykunde Wundarzneykunst 14:107–111, 1806

    Google Scholar 

  • Bush RB, Leonhardt H, Bush IV, Landes RR. Dr. Bozzini's Lichtleiter: A translation of his original article (1806). Urology 3:119–123, 1974

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Desormeaux AS [sic; AJ]: De l'endoscope, instrument proper a eclairer certaines cavites intensely de l'economie. CR Acad Sci 40:692–693, 1855

    Google Scholar 

  • Kussmaul A: Treatment of hypertrophy of the stomach through a new method using the stomach pump. Deutsch Arch Klin Med 6:455–500, 1869

    Google Scholar 

  • Kluge F, Seidler E: Zur erstanwendung der oesophago-und gastroskopie: Briefe von Adolf Kussmaul und seinen mitarbeitern. Med Hist J 21:288–307, 1986

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nitze M: Eine neue beobachtungs-und untersuchungsmethode fur hornrohre, hornblase und rektum. Wien Med Wschr 21:650, 1879

    Google Scholar 

  • Mikulicz J: Ueber gastroskopie und oesophagoskopie. Wien Med Wschr 33:705, 1883

    Google Scholar 

  • Edmonson JM: History of the instruments for gastrointestinal endoscopy. Gastrointest Endosc 37:S27—S56, 1991

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenheim T: Ueber gastroskopie. Berliner Klin Wschr 33:275–278, 298–301, 325–327, 1896

  • Schindler R: Probleme und technik der gastroskopie mit der beschreibung eines neuen gastroskops. Arch Verdauugskr 30:133–166, 1922

    Google Scholar 

  • Leiter J: Elektro-Endokopische Instrumente. Wien, W. Braumuller & Son, 1880

    Google Scholar 

  • Kelling G: Ueber oesophagoskopie, gastroskopie, und kolioskopie. Munch Med Wchnschr 52:21–23, 1902

    Google Scholar 

  • Dagradi AE: History. In Gastrointestinal Endoscopy: Technique and Interpretation. New York, Igaku-Shoin, 1983, pp 4–11

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoffmann M: Optische instrumente mit beweglicher achse und ihre verwendung fur die gastroskopie. Munch Med Wochenschr 58:2446–2448, 1911

    Google Scholar 

  • Schindler R: Gastroscopy: The Endoscopic Study of Gastric Pathology. 2nd ed. Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1950

    Google Scholar 

  • Hopkins H, Kapany NS: A flexible fiberscope using a static scanning. Nature 173:39–41, 1954

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Curtiss LE, Hirschowitz BI, Peters CW. A long fiberscope for internal medical examination. J Opt Soc Am 47:117, 1957 (abstr)

    Google Scholar 

  • Hirschowitz BI: Endoscopic examination of the stomach and duodenal cap with the fiberscope. Lancet 1:1074–1078, 1961

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McCune WS, Shorb PE, Moscovitz H: Endoscopic cannulation of the ampulla of Vater: A preliminary report. Ann Surg 167:752–756, 1968

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Oi I: Endoscopic pancreatography by fiberduodenoscope (FIDS-Lb). Jpn J Gastroenterol 66:880–883, 1969

    Google Scholar 

  • Oi I: Fiberduodenoscopy and endoscopic pancreatocholangiography. Gastrointest Endosc 17:59–62, 1970

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Boyle W, Smith G: Charge coupled semiconductor devices. Bell Syst Tech J 49:587–593, 1970

    Google Scholar 

  • Sivak MV, Fleischer DE. Colonoscopy with a videoendoscope: Preliminary experience. Gastrointest Endosc 30:1–5, 1984

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Classen M, Phillip J: Electronic endoscopy of the upper gastrointestinal tract: Initial experience with a new type of endoscope that has no fiberoptic bundle for imaging. Endoscopy 16:16–19, 1984

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • DiMagno EP, Buxton JL, Regan PT, Hattery RR, Wilson DA, Suarez JR, Green PS: Ultrasonic endoscope. Lancet I:629–631, 1980

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Strohm WD, Phillip J, Hagenmuller F, Classen M: Ultrasonic tomography by means of an ultrasonic fiberendoscope. Endoscopy 12:241–244, 1980

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Appleyard M, Glukhovsky A, Swain P: Wireless-capsule diagnostic endoscopy for recurrent small-bowel bleeding. N Engl J Med 344:232–233, 2001

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nissen R. Die chirurgische behndlung des bedrolichen mediastinalemphyems. Zentralbl Chir 57:1023–1025, 1930

    Google Scholar 

  • Nissen R: Extirpation eines ganzen lungenflugles. Zentralbl Chir 58:3003–3006, 1931

    Google Scholar 

  • Sauerbruch F: Master Surgeon. New York, Thomas Crowell, 1954

    Google Scholar 

  • Friedlander S: Nazi Germany and the Jews. 2nd ed. London, Orion Books, 1998, p 225

    Google Scholar 

  • Ernst E: Commentary: The Third Reich—-German physicians between resistance and participation. Int J Epidemiol 30:37–42, 2001

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Epstein MA: A lucky few: Refugees in Turkey. In The Holocaust and History: The Known, the Unknown, the Disputed, and the Reexamined. Berenbaum M, Peck AJ (eds). Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 1998, pp 536–550

    Google Scholar 

  • Batirel HF, Yuksel M: Rudolph Nissen's years in Bosphorus and the pioneers of thoracic surgery in Turkey. Ann Thorac Surg 69:651–654, 2000

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rossetti ME, Liebermann-Meffert D: Nissen-Rossetti antireflux fundoplication (open procedure). In Masters of Surgery. Ed 3. Nyhus LM, Baker LJ, Fischer JE (eds). Boston, Little, Brown, 1988

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen JR, Graver LM: The ruptured abdominal aortic aneurysm of Albert Einstein. Surg Gynecol Obstet 170:455–458, 1990

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Garcelon JC, O'Leary JP: Dr. Rudolph Nissen: The man and his other contributions. Am Surg 61:468, 1995

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nissen R: Die transpleurale resektion der kardia. Deutsch Z Chir 249:311–316, 1937

    Google Scholar 

  • Nissen R: Eine einfache operation zur beeinflussung der refluxoesophagitis. Schweiz Med Wochenschr 86:590–592, 1956

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hijmans van den Bergh AA, Muller P: Uber eine directe und eine indirecte diazoreaction auf bilirubin. Biochem Z 77:90–103, 1916

    Google Scholar 

  • Mandema E: Internal medicine in the last 40 years (in Holland). Nederlands Tijdschrift Geneeskunde 141:9–17, 1997

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hijmans van den Bergh AA: De cholera te Rotterdam. Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd 53:847–854, 1909

    Google Scholar 

  • Hijmans van den Bergh AA: Der Gallenfarbstoff im Blute. Leiden, van Doesburgh, 1925

    Google Scholar 

  • Pannekoek JH: Clinician, researcher and teacher: Abraham Albert Hijmans van den Bergh (1869–1943). Nederlands Tijdschrift Geneeskunde 137:1982–1987, 1993

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hess HS: Jewish Physicians in the Netherlands. Assen, Van Gorcum, 1980, pp 77–78

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Lieburg MJ: Biografie van Hijmans, Abraham Albert. In Biografisch Wordenboek van Nederland. Vol. 3. The Hague, Netherlands, 1989

    Google Scholar 

  • Isselbacher KJ, Axelrod J: Enzymatic formation of corticosteroid glucuronides. J Am Chem Soc 77:1070–1071, 1955

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Isselbacher KJ, Anderson EP, Kurahash K, Kalckar HM: Congenital galactosemia, a single enzymatic block in galactose metabolism. Science 123:635–636, 1956

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Greenberger NJ, Hatch FT, Drummy GD, Isselbacher KJ: Pancreatitis and hyperlipemia: A study of serum lipid alterations in 25 patients with acute pancreatitis. Medicine 45:161–174, 1966

    Google Scholar 

  • Braunwald E: Presentation of the Kober medal of the Association of American Physicians to Kurt J. Isselbacher, M.D. J Clin Invest 108 (Suppl):s15—s19, 2001

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenbaum S: Zur pathogenese der kindlichen dysenterie und ihrer komplicationen. Harefuah 10:ii—iii, 1936

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenbaum S: Magen darm blutungen als begleitanscheinung der pylorospasmus. Monatschr f Kinderh 54:409–413, 1932

    Google Scholar 

  • Plaschkes S: Peristaltiksteigerung am magen durch vertiefte almung. Roentgenpraxis 3:685, 1931

    Google Scholar 

  • Plaschkes S: Reflektorische hypermotilitat des magendarmtraktes (diarrhoen) bei fettleibigkeit. Med Klin 32:58–59, 1936

    Google Scholar 

  • Weil AJ, Saphra I: Salmonellae and Shigellae: Laboratory Diagnosis Correlated with Clinical Manifestations and Epidemiology. Springfield, IL, Charles C. Thomas, 1953

    Google Scholar 

  • Seligmann E: Cerebro-Spinal Meningitis in Prussia in 1923 and 1924: Third and Final Report. Geneva, League of Nations, 1926

    Google Scholar 

  • Seligmann E: Artumwandlung in der enteritisgruppe. Centralb Bakteriol 101:161, 1927

    Google Scholar 

  • Lichtwitz L: Uber die Bildung der Harn und Gallensteine. Berlin, Springer, 1914

    Google Scholar 

  • Lichtwitz L: Pathologie der Funktionen und Regulationen. Leiden, A. W. Sijthoff's Uitgeversmaatschappij n.v., 1936

    Google Scholar 

  • Wulman L: A history of Jewish physicians in Poland: Outstanding Jewish physicians. In The Martyrdom of Jewish Physicians in Poland. Wulman L, Tenenbaum J (eds). New York, Exposition Press, 1963

    Google Scholar 

  • Cytronberg S: Mechanism of motor function of biliary duct: Excretion of hepatic and vesical bile into duodenum. Polska Gaz Lek 7:77–79, 1928

    Google Scholar 

  • Cytronberg S: Magenfunktion spuefung mittels pysikalischchemischer untersuchungsmethoden. Wien Med Wochnschr 83:1311, 1343, 1371, 1403, 1933

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Landau A, Held J: La syphilis gastrique: Etude clinique. Paris, Masson, 1936

    Google Scholar 

  • Landau A, Held J: Contribution a l'etude des icteres. Ann Med Paris 19:264–279, 1926

    Google Scholar 

  • Ehrmann RR: Nebennieren. Vol. 3, Part 1, of Handbuch der Inneren Sekretion. Leipzig, 1928

  • New York Times: Rudolf Ehrmann: Obituary. December 23, 1963, p 25, column l

  • Anonymous: Rudolf R. Ehrmann, M.D., Obituary. NY State J Med 64:444, 1964

    Google Scholar 

  • Bauer R: Ueber die Assimilation von Galaktose und Milchzucker beim Gesunden und Kranken. Wien, M. Perles, 1905

    Google Scholar 

  • Bauer R: Drei mit typhusimmunserum behandelte falle von typhus abdominalis. Wien Med Wchnschr 65:1923, 1915

    Google Scholar 

  • Holler G: Professor Dr. Richard Bauer [obituary]. Wien Klin Wochenschr 72:13–15, 1960

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schur H: Magenkrankheiten. Vienna & Berlin, J. Springer, 1929

    Google Scholar 

  • Schur H: Die Erkrankungen des Verdauungsapparates: Magen, Darm, Leber. Wien, Hoelder—Pichler—Tempsky, 1948

    Google Scholar 

  • Schur H: Das gastritisproblem. Wien Klin Wchnschr 42:1134–1136, 1929

    Google Scholar 

  • Koren N: Jewish Physicians: A Biographical Index. Jerusalem, Israel Universities Press, 1973

    Google Scholar 

  • Porges O: Magenkrankheiten: Ihre Diagnose und Therapie, in Zwoelf Klinischen Vorlesungen. Berlin, Urban & Schwarzenberg, 1929

    Google Scholar 

  • Porges O: Ueber den zusammenhang zwischen typhlitis und erkrankungen der gallenwege. Wien Med Wchnschr 78:1366–1369, 1928

    Google Scholar 

  • Zuelzer GL: Innere Medizin. Leipzig, W. Klinkhardt, 1911–1913. (2 vols).

    Google Scholar 

  • Zuelzer G: Die hormontherapie: I. Das peristaltikhormon. Horm Ther Gegenw Berl 52:197–202, 1911

    Google Scholar 

  • New York Times: Georg Zuelzer: Obituary. October 20, 1949, p 29, column 4

  • Kleeberg J, Birnbaum D: Observations on effect of aureomycin in human amoebiasis. Harefuah 39:121, 1950

    Google Scholar 

  • Baader G: The impact of German Jewish physicians and German medicine on the origins and development of the medical faculty of the Hebrew University. Korot 15:9–45, 2001

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Glass GBJ (ed). Gastrointestinal Hormones. New York, Raven Press, 1980

    Google Scholar 

  • Glass GBJ (ed). Progress in Gastroenterology. New York & London, Grune & Stratton, 1968–1983 (4 vols)

    Google Scholar 

  • New York Times: Mrs. Jerzy Przeworska (mother-in-law of Dr. George B.J. Glass): Obituary. July 11, 1965, p 69

  • Plocker L: To the memory of Dr. Antoni Tuchendler, the founder of Polish Gastrology. Polski Tygodnik Lekarski 13:810–811, 1958

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tuchendler A: Diseases of the lower portion of the intestine in the light of rectoscopic (rigid proctosigmoidoscopic) investigations. Medycyna Kron lek (Warsaw) 46:513–521, 1911

    Google Scholar 

  • Thannhauser SJ: Thannhauser's Textbook of Metabolism and Metabolic Disorders. Oxford, Blackwell Scientific, 1962–1964

    Google Scholar 

  • Zollner N: Siegfried J. Thannhauser, 1885–1962: Classification of xanthomatous diseases. Internist (Berl):10:106–109, 1969

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Snapper I: Bedside Medicine. New York, Grune & Stratton, 1960

    Google Scholar 

  • Snapper I, Dalmeier JJ: Die beleutung des abbaues von blutfabstoff im darm zu porphyrin fur den nachweis des okkulten blutes in den faezes. Dtsch Med Wochenschr 47:985–986, 1921

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson JHP, Birkenhaeger JC: Isidore Snapper (1889–1973) and quantitative assay of fecal hemoglobin [letter]. Ann Intern Med 102:721, 1985

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Popper H: Isidore Snapper, M.D., 1889–1973. Mt Sinai J Med 40:716–719, 1973

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lefkowitz M: Der endemische icterus in Palaestina. Harefuah 12:v—vi, 1937

    Google Scholar 

  • Lefkowitz M, Zondek H, Rachmilewitz M: Answers to questionnaire on colitis in Palestine. Harefuah 13:iii—vi, 1937

    Google Scholar 

  • Parnas JK, Wagner R: Beobachtungen ueber zuckerneubildung. I. Nach versuchen die an einem falle besonderer kohlenhydratstoffwechselstoerung angestellt wurden. Biochem Ztschr Berl 127:55–65, 1922

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Landsberg M: Etude clinique de la substance “A” de l'insuline. Prog Med 42:242–245, 1927

    Google Scholar 

  • Meyer HH, Gottlieb R, Pick EP: Die Experimentelle Pharmacologie als Grundlage der Arzneibehandlung. Berlin, Urban & Schwarzenberg, 1910

    Google Scholar 

  • Pick EP, Glaubach S: Influence of protein metabolism on distribution of nitrogen compounds in liver. J Mt. Sinai Hosp 8:909–915, 1942

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mandl F: Blockade and Chirurgie des Sympathicus. Vienna, Springer, 1953

    Google Scholar 

  • Mandl F: Insuffizienz der Weber-Ramstedt'schen Operation beim pylorospasmus. Zentralbl Chir 55:662–664, 1928

    Google Scholar 

  • Mandl F: Therapeutischer versuch bein einem fall ostitis fibrosa generalisata mittles: Exstirpation eines epithelkorperchentumors. Wien Klin Wochenschr Zentral 53:260–264, 1926

    Google Scholar 

  • Dolev E: Prof. Felix Mandl (1892–1957): A forgotten giant. Harefuah 124:375–378, 1993

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pribram BO: Fortschritte in der Erkenntnis der Pathologie und der Chirugischen Behandlung des Gallensteinleidens. Jaen; Fischer, 1930

    Google Scholar 

  • Pribram BO: Surgical indication in “silent” and recrudescent cholecystolithiasis. Wien Klin Wochenschr 72:756–761, 1960

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hirsch O: Long-term cures and improvements after transsphenoidal operation of pituitary tumors: Thirty-three patients, followed up after 20–37 years. Copenhagen, Munksgaard, 1959 (issued as Acta Opthalmol Suppl 56)

  • Hirsch O: Zur operativen behandlung der oesophagus divertikel. Monatschr Ohrenh 61:614–620, 1927

    Google Scholar 

  • Masse C, Zondek H: Das Hungeroedem: Eine Klinische und Ernaehrunsphysiologische Studie. Leipzig, Thieme, 1920

    Google Scholar 

  • Finkelstein H, Meyer LF: Ueber “Eiweissmilch”: Ein Beitrag zum Problem der Kunstlichen Ernahrung. Berlin, S. Karger, 1910

    Google Scholar 

  • Finkelstein H: Die saeuglingssterblichkeit und ihre bekaempfung—-vom autor gekuerzt. Lehrbuch der Saeuglingskrankheiten (Berlin), 1905, Erste Haelfte, pp 1— 14

  • Wunderlich P: Heinrich Finkelstein (1865–1942): Pediatrician and pioneer in social pediatrics, A biographical sketch. Kinderarztl Prax 58:587–592, 1990

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Encyclopedia Judaica: Heinrich Finkelstein. Jerusalem, Keter, 1974, Vol 6, 1294; Vol 11, 1206–1211 (under “Jewish Physicians”)

  • Meyer LF, Nassau E: Die Sauglingsernahrung: Eine Anleitung fur Arzte und Studierende. Munchen, J.F. Bergmann, 1930

    Google Scholar 

  • Meyer LF, Nassau E: Zur wertung und behandlung von bauchschmerzen in kindesalter. Ther Gegenw 71:30, 72, 1930

    Google Scholar 

  • Loewi O: From the Workshop of Discoveries (Porter Lectures). Lawrence, University of Kansas Press, 1953

    Google Scholar 

  • Loewi O: Ueber eiweissynthese im thierkoerper (On protein synthesis in the animal body). Arch Exp Path Pharmakol (Leipzig) 48:303–330, 1902

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Obernbdorfer S: Genel tomur bilimi ve kanser (Yazanlar). Istanbul, Adnan Kitabevi, 1946

    Google Scholar 

  • Oberndorfer S: Altes und neueres uber appendix, appendizitis und appendixkarzinoide. Munchen Med Wchnschr 75:1329–1333, 1928

    Google Scholar 

  • Meisels E: Acute dilatation of stomach and arteriomesenteric obstruction of duodenum. Polski Przegl Radiol 13:103–121, 1938

    Google Scholar 

  • Turyn F: Sur la biotypologie des porteurs de megacolon. Arch Mal App Digest 24:819–825, 1934

    Google Scholar 

  • Grundzach I: Outline of the Development of Gastroenterology in Poland, 1926. Cited in Wulman, 1963, p 81

  • Grundzach I: Colitis avitaminosa. Polska Gaz Lekar 3:220–222, 1924

    Google Scholar 

  • Stein J: Sur la formation de la biliverdine dans les cellules hepatiques cultivees in vitro. Arch Exp Zellforsch 20:78–81, 1937

    Google Scholar 

  • Justman L: Stricture of the oesophagus due to syphilitic cicatrices. Med Kron lek Warszawa 47:954, 978, 1912

    Google Scholar 

  • Daniels LP: Acute yellow atrophy of liver. Neder Tijdschr Geneesk 75:4510–4519, 1931

    Google Scholar 

  • Mulder J: Leonard Polak Daniels, Obituary. Acta Med Scand 106:447–448, 1941

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oznobishchev VN, Kaplan AD, Speranskaia SM: Pervaia Meditsinskaia Pomoshch, 1941 (in Russian)

  • Lubelski M: Resection of a cancerous transverse colon, with recovery. Med Kron lek Warszawa 45:308, 1910

    Google Scholar 

  • Lubelski M: Diffuse purulent peritonitis caused by appendicitis, complicated by abscess of the knee joint. Med Kron lek Warszawa 46:752–755, 1911

    Google Scholar 

  • Mintz S, Goldstein P: Rare case of perforation of gastric ulcer into spleen. Warszaw Czasop lek 9:779–781, 1932

    Google Scholar 

  • Mesz N, Orzech M: Intestinal drainage. Med J Rec 134:129–130, 1931

    Google Scholar 

  • Gruber GG: In memoriam: Ludwig Pick (8-31-1868–2-3-1944). Verh Dtsch Ges Pathol 52:574–580, 1968

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pick L: Die Skelettform Ossuaere Form, des Morbus Gaucher. Jena, Fischer, 1927 (in German)

  • Pick L: Der paratyphus. Handb Speziellen Pathol Anat Berlin 4:2, 1928

    Google Scholar 

  • Pick L: Niemann-Picksche (sphingomyelinose). Ergebnisse Inneren Med 29:519, 1926

    Google Scholar 

  • Widdig B: Culture and Inflation in Weimar Germany. Berkeley, University of California Press, 2001

    Google Scholar 

  • Lohalm U: Volkisch origins of early Nazism: Anti-Semitism in culture and politics. In Hostages of Modernization: Studies on Modern Antisemitism 1870–1933/39: Germany, Great Britain, France (Current Research on Antisemitism, Vol 3, Part 1). Strauss HA (ed). Berlin, Walter de Gruyter, 1993

    Google Scholar 

  • Dinnerstein L: Antisemitism in America. New York, Oxford University Press, 1995

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown TM: Jewish physicians in the United States. In Jews and Medicine: Religion, Culture, Science. Berger N (ed). Philadelphia, Jewish Publication Society, 1995, pp 221–237

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolf R, Wolf O: Drug rechallenge and patient's rights. Med Law 11:33–36, 1992

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Baader G: The contribution of central European Jewish doctors to medical science. In Jews and Medicine: Religion, Culture, Science. Berger N (ed). Philadelphia, Jewish Publication Society, 1995, pp 167–183

    Google Scholar 

  • Scholz A, Schmidt C: Decline of German dermatovenereology under the Nazi regime. Int J Dermatol 32:71–74, 1993

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Proctor RN: The Nazi War on Cancer. Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press, 2000

    Google Scholar 

  • Fermi L: Illustrious Immigrants: The Intellectual Migration from Europe 1930–1941. Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1971, pp 299–311

    Google Scholar 

  • Fleming D, Bailyn B (eds): The Intellectual Migration: Europe and America, 1930–1960. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 1969, pp 675–718

    Google Scholar 

  • Schneck P: Zur frage des exils von wissenschaftlern deutscher medizinischer fakultaeten in der zeit des faschismus. Z Gesamte Hyg 31:306–309, 1985

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ernst E: A leading medical school seriously damaged: Vienna 1938. Ann Intern Med 122:789–792, 1995

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Anonymous: Nobel Prize winners. In Jews and Medicine: Religion, Culture, Science. Berger N (ed). Philadelphia, Jewish Publication Society, 1995, pp 234–237

    Google Scholar 

  • Encyclopaedia Britannica: A New Survey of Universal Knowledge. Ed. 16. Chicago, Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1957, Vol 23, p 793Q (World War II)

    Google Scholar 

  • Schindler R, Spiegel C, Malechi E: Silences: Helping elderly holocaust victims deal with the past. Int J Aging Hum Dev 35:243–252, 1992

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lindsten J, Ringertz N: The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1901–2000. In The Nobel Prize: The First 100 Years. Levinovitz AW, Ringertz N (eds). Singapore, Imperial College Press and World Scientific, 2001

    Google Scholar 

  • Navarro FA: English or German? The language of medicine based on the bibliographic data appearing in the Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift (1920–1995). Dtsch Med Wochenschr 121:1561–1566, 1996

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Classen M, Demling L: Endoskopische sphincterotomie der papilla vateri und steine extracktion aus dem ductus choledochus. Dtsch Med Wochenschr 99:496–497, 1974

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cappell MS, Waye JD, Farrar JT, Sleisenger MH: Fifty landmark discoveries in gastroenterology during the past 50 years: A brief history of modern gastroenterology at the millennium: Part I. Gastrointestinal procedures and upper gastrointestinal disorders. Gastroenterol Clin North Am 29:223–263, 2000

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shirer WL: The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany. New York, Simon and Schuster, 1990

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Gastroenterology Fellowship Training Program, Albert Einstein Medical Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

    Mitchell S. Cappell MD, PhD (FACG, Director)

  2. Archives (History) Committee of the American College of Gastroenterology, USA

    Mitchell S. Cappell MD, PhD (FACG, Director)

  3. Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein Medical Center, Klein Professional Bldg., Suite 363, 5401 Old Yark Road, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 19141

    Mitchell S. Cappell MD, PhD (FACG, Director)

Authors
  1. Mitchell S. Cappell MD, PhD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Cappell, M.S. The Effect of Nazism on Medical Progress in Gastroenterology: The Inefficiency of Evil. Dig Dis Sci 51, 1137–1158 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10620-006-8023-x

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10620-006-8023-x

Keywords

Search

Navigation